Methods for in vitro joining and combinatorial assembly of nucleic acid molecules

ABSTRACT

The present invention relates to methods of joining two or more double-stranded (ds) or single-stranded (ss) DNA molecules of interest in vitro, wherein the distal region of the first DNA molecule and the proximal region of the second DNA molecule of each pair share a region of sequence identity. The method allows the joining of a large number of DNA fragments, in a predetermined order and orientation, without the use of restriction enzymes. It can be used, e.g., to join synthetically produced sub-fragments of a gene or genome of interest. Kits for performing the method are also disclosed. The methods of joining DNA molecules may be used to generate combinatorial libraries useful to generate, for example, optimal protein expression through codon optimization, gene optimization, and pathway optimization.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation application of U.S. application Ser.No. 16/388,722 filed Apr. 18, 2019, currently pending; which is acontinuation application of U.S. application Ser. No. 14/636,082 filedMar. 2, 2015, now issued as U.S. Pat. No. 10,266,865; which is adivisional application of U.S. application Ser. No. 12/371,543 filedFeb. 13, 2009, now issued as U.S. Pat. No. 8,968,999; which claims thebenefit under 35 USC § 119(e) to U.S. Application Ser. No. 61/142,101filed Dec. 31, 2008, U.S. Application Ser. No. 61/098,202 filed Sep. 18,2008, U.S. Application Ser. No. 61/052,614 filed May 12, 2008, U.S.Application Ser. No. 61/064,107 filed Feb. 15, 2008 and U.S. ApplicationSer. No. 61/029,312 filed Feb. 15, 2008. The disclosure of each of theprior applications is considered part of and is incorporated byreference in the disclosure of this application.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Field of the Invention

The invention concerns methods for in vitro joining of single-strandedand/or double-stranded nucleic acid molecules permitting efficientone-step assembly of multiple nucleic acid molecules with overlappingterminal sequences. Invention methods are particularly useful ineffecting systematic combinatorial assembly of fragments of nucleic acidsequence variants to modify properties of the joined nucleic acidsequence, for example, nucleic acid sequences providing variants ofcodon usage, control sequences, genes, pathways, chromosomes,extrachromosomal nucleic acids, and genomes.

Background Information

A two-step thermocycler-based method was used to assemble portions ofthe M. genitalium genome, as described in Gibson, D. G., el al.,“Complete chemical synthesis, assembly, and cloning of a Mycoplasmagenitalium genome.” Science (2008) 319:1215-1220. Another approach isdescribed by Li, M. Z., et al., Nature Meth. (2007) 4:251-256. Asingle-step method of assembly employing T7 5′ exonuclease andsingle-stranded DNA binding protein is disclosed in PCT publicationWO2006/021944. The present invention discloses one-step procedures whichfacilitate assembly of DNA molecules in vitro. These methods employeither a non-thermostable 5′ exonuclease that lacks 3′ exonucleaseactivity or a 3′ exonuclease that is functional in the presence ofdNTPs.

These new methods are particularly useful in an additional aspect of theinvention which provides systematic combinatorial assembly to modifynucleic acid molecules. Combinatorial techniques for assembly ofchemical compounds for use in high throughput screening is by now wellestablished. In addition, gene shuffling techniques in which codingsequences are randomly fragmented and reannealed have been practiced fora number of years. For instance, protocols to create libraries ofchimeric gene fragments are described in Meyer, M., et al,“Combinatorial Recombination of Gene Fragments to Construct a Library ofChimeras” Current Protocols in Protein Science (2006) 26.2.1-26.2.17;McKee, A. E., et al., JBEI abstract. There is, however, a need for asystematic approach to combinatorial approach that does not rely onrandom rearrangement or shuffling to provide optimized nucleic acidsequences, for example, with optimized coding sequences or metabolicpathways, that can be selected according to desired properties. Thepresent invention fills this need by providing a systematiccombinatorial approach to assemble a variety of nucleic acids ofinterest.

Techniques for assembling various components into complete or minimalgenomes have been established. For example, U.S. Patent Publication2000/0264688, published 15 Nov. 2007, describes methods for constructinga synthetic genome by generating and assembling cassettes comprisingportions of the genome. A stepwise hierarchical method to assemblenucleic acids is described in U.S. Patent Publication 2007/004041,published 4 Jan. 2007. However, no suggestion is made of using thesetechniques systematically to assemble a desired nucleic acid molecule.

It is understood that construction of a genome need not include all ofthe components that occur naturally. PCT Publication WO2007/047148describes a minimal genome based on Mycoplasma genitalium wherein asmany as 101 genes encoding proteins can be omitted and still retainviability. There is no suggestion that the components of the minimalgenome be systematically assembled as combinatorial libraries permittingthe formation of a multiplicity of alternative minimal genomes.

The present invention, thus, is directed to systematic methods and theproducts thereof that permit efficient and extensive modification ofnucleic acid molecules to provide and screen nucleic acid assemblies ofinterest in a high-throughput manner, and readily adaptable to roboticimplementation. In alternative embodiments, assembly reactions can beperformed on a solid surface as opposed to in a reaction tube, forexample, on a chip using microfluidics (such as shown in Huang, Y., etal., Lab Chip (2007) 7:24-26).

The techniques for systematic combinatorial assembly of nucleic acidsrepresenting variant coding sequences, expression systems, pathwaysynthesis and minimal or larger genomes employ in vitro assemblytechniques at least in part. Any suitable in vitro assembly techniquemay be employed; however, the methods of the present invention includeimprovements on those already described in the art.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In a first aspect, the invention provides an in vitro method of joininga set of two or more double-stranded (ds) or single-stranded (ss) DNAmolecules. The adjacent DNA molecules to be joined contain overlappingsequences at their termini. The two or more DNA molecules are contactedin vitro in a single vessel with (a) an isolated non-thermostable 5′ to3′ exonuclease that lacks 3′ exonuclease activity, (b) a crowding agent,(c) an isolated thermostable non-strand-displacing DNA polymerase with3′ exonuclease activity, or a mixture of said DNA polymerase with asecond DNA polymerase that lacks 3′ exonuclease activity, (d) anisolated thermostable ligase, (e) a mixture of dNTPs, and (f) a suitablebuffer, under conditions that are effective for joining the two or moreDNA molecules to form a first assembled dsDNA molecule in a one-stepreaction.

In some embodiments, the exonuclease of (a) is a T5 exonuclease and thecontacting is under isothermal conditions, and/or the crowding agent of(b) is PEG, and/or the non-strand-displacing DNA polymerase of (c) isPHUSION® DNA polymerase or VENT_(R)® DNA polymerase, and/or the ligaseof (d) is Taq ligase.

In some embodiments, the conditions are also suitable for digesting anyunpaired, non-homologous, single-stranded DNAs following the joiningreaction. At least some of the DNA molecules to be joined comprise, atone terminus, a sequence that is non-homologous to any of the DNAmolecules of interest. Optionally, the non-homologous sequences compriseone or more binding regions for PCR primers, and/or regions of homologyto vector sequences, and/or recognition sites for one or morerestriction enzymes that are not present within the DNA molecules ofinterest, e.g., rare-cutting restriction enzymes.

The method may be employed to join a second set of two or more DNAmolecules to one another to obtain a second assembled DNA molecule inaddition to a first assembled molecule, and the first and the secondassembled DNA molecules joined to obtain a third assembled ds DNAmolecule. This process may be sequentially repeated as required toobtain the whole nucleic acid sequence of interest.

The invention also provides kits for performing the above methods thatcomprise:

(a) an isolated non-thermostable 5′ to 3′ exonuclease that lacks 3′exonuclease activity, (b) a crowding agent, (c) an isolated thermostablenon-strand-displacing DNA polymerase with 3′ exonuclease activity, or amixture of said DNA polymerase with a second DNA polymerase that lacks3′ exonuclease activity, and (d) an isolated thermostable ligase, inappropriate amounts. For example, the kit may contain T5 exonuclease,PEG, PHUSION® DNA polymerase, and Taq ligase.

In a second aspect, the invention is directed to an alternative in vitromethod of joining a set of two or more double-stranded (ds) orsingle-stranded (ss) DNA molecules, where adjacent DNA molecules to bejoined contain overlapping sequences at their termini. The methodcomprises contacting in vitro the two or more DNA molecules in a singlevessel with (a) an isolated non-thermos table 3′ to 5′ exonucleaseactive in the presence of dNTPs, (b) a crowding agent, (c) an isolatedheat-activated DNA polymerase, (d) an isolated thermostable ligase, (e)a mixture of dNTPs, and (f) a suitable buffer, under conditions that areeffective for joining the two or more DNA molecules to form a firstassembled dsDNA molecule in a one-step thermocycled reaction.

In one embodiment of this aspect, the exonuclease of (a) is ExonucleaseIII, and/or the polymerase of (c) is heat-activated by the removal of aninactivating moiety combined with the polymerase in a heat-sensitivemanner; and/or the crowding agent of (b) is PEG, and/or the ligase of(d) is Taq ligase. The DNA polymerase of (c) may be AMPLITAQ GOLD®.

This method may also be employed to obtain a second assembled set of DNAmolecules that can be combined with a first assembled set. Anycombination of the thermocycled one-step method and the foregoingisothermal method may be used for assembly of various sets of DNAmolecules and any of the two may be used for subsequent assembly oflarger DNA molecules from the assembled sets.

The components for the above method may be provided as a kit thatcomprises, in a single vessel: (a) an isolated non-thermostable 3′ to 5′exonuclease active in the presence of dNTPs, (b) a crowding agent, (c)an isolated heat-activated DNA polymerase, (d) an isolated thermostableligase, (e) a mixture of dNTPs, and (f) a suitable buffer, in amountssuch that when said two or more DNA molecules are added to the kit, inthe presence of a suitable buffer solution and dNTPs, and incubatedunder thermocycled conditions, the two or more DNA molecules areassembled in a concerted reaction. In one embodiment of this aspect, thekit comprises: (a) Exonuclease III, (b) PEG, (c) AMPLITAQ GOLD® DNApolymerase, and (d) Taq ligase.

Any combination of materials useful in the disclosed methods of thefirst and second aspects can be packaged together as a kit forperforming any of the disclosed methods. For example, a kit can comprisea mixture containing all of the reagents necessary for assembling ssDNAmolecules (e.g., oligonucleotides) or dsDNA molecules.

In a third aspect, the invention provides a method of modifying theproperties of a whole nucleic acid molecule. The method comprises: (a)representationally dividing the nucleic acid sequence of said wholenucleic acid molecule into a multiplicity of portions along its lengththereby identifying the sequences of partial nucleic molecules; (b)providing, for at least 3 of said partial nucleic molecules, amultiplicity of variants of each partial nucleic acid molecule; (c)combinatorially assembling in vitro said variants along with any partialnucleic acid molecules which are not varied, wherein the partial nucleicacid molecules or variants thereof contain overlapping sequences attheir termini whereby assembly of the partial nucleic acid molecules andvariants thereof in the mixture would result in assembly of amultiplicity of variants of the whole nucleic acid molecule; and (d)expressing the variants of the whole nucleic acid molecule to determineany modified properties of said variants of said whole nucleic acidmolecule.

The assembling of step (c) may be performed by either of the foregoingmethods, although alternative joining methods may also be used.Multistep in vitro methods may be used, for example, or in vivo methods,such as those described in PCT application PCT/US2008/079109 (WO2009/048885) may be used. While in vitro assembly methods are generallymore convenient for oligonucleotides, in vivo assembly methods are alsoworkable alternatives.

One assembly method that may be employed comprises the steps of: (a)contacting said variants along with any partial nucleic acid moleculeswhich are not varied with a non-processive 5′ exonuclease; and with (b)a single stranded DNA binding protein (SSB) which accelerates nucleicacid annealing; and with (c) a non-strand-displacing DNA polymerase; andwith (d) a ligase, under conditions effective to join the variants andpartial nucleic acid molecules that are not varied so as to result inassembly of a multiplicity of variants of the whole nucleic acidmolecule.

This aspect, in one embodiment, comprises dividing the nucleic acidsequence of the whole nucleic acid molecule into at least 5 portionswhich can advantageously be assembled using the in vitro methods of theinvention. In other embodiments, the partial nucleic acid molecularvariants provide degenerate forms of the codon for one or more aminoacids encoded by the partial nucleic acid molecules. Alternatively, thevariants of the partial nucleic acid molecule provide a multiplicity ofnucleic acid control sequences affecting transcription or translation ofthe whole nucleic acid molecule. As another alternative, the variants ofthe partial nucleic acid molecule provide a multiplicity of regionsencoding domains or motifs of peptides or proteins encoded by the wholenucleic acid molecule. As yet another alternative, the peptides orproteins encoded by said partial nucleic acid molecules functiontogether in a metabolic pathway.

The various recombination approaches set forth above can be used toconstruct any desired assembly, such as plasmids, vectors, genes,metabolic pathways, minimal genomes, partial genomes, genomes,chromosomes, extrachromosomal nucleic acids, for example, cytoplasmicorganelles, such as mitochondria (animals), and in chloroplasts andplastids (plants), and the like. For the assembly of large DNAmolecules, the final steps may be conducted in vivo, where yeast is apreferred host. The balance between in vitro and in vivo conduct ofassembly steps is determined by the practicality of the method withregard to the nature of the DNA molecules to be assembled.

The invention further includes libraries of DNA molecules obtained bythe foregoing methods, and methods to use the modified whole DNAmolecules. The libraries, which contain 2 or more variants, buttypically multiple variants, such as 20, 100, 1000 or more can bescreened for members having desired characteristics, such as highproduction levels of desired products, enhanced functionality of theproducts, or decreased functionality (if that is advantageous). Suchscreening may be done by high throughput methods, which may berobotic/automated.

The invention also further includes products made by the methods of thepresent invention, for example, the resulting assembled synthetic genesor genomes and modified optimized genes and genomes, and the use andproducts thereof.

The recombinant methods of the invention have a wide variety ofapplications, permitting, for example, the design of pathways for thesynthesis of useful products, including pharmaceuticals, biofuels,diagnostics, veterinary products, agricultural chemicals, growthfactors, and the like—i.e., any molecule that can be assembled in a cellculture or in a transgenic animal or plant. As a simple example, theacetate pathway of E. coli can be adapted to produce biofuels such asethanol, butanol and the like. Enzymes on a synthetic pathway for asecondary metabolite, such as a polyketide, can also be optimized usingthe methods of the invention. Thus, the DNA molecules that result fromthe systemic combinatorial procedures of the invention may be employedin a wide variety of contexts to produce useful products.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1A is a schematic of a two-step thermocycled in vitro assemblyusing T4 polymerase.

FIG. 1B shows the results of assembly of 8 nucleic acid fragments, eachbetween 5.3 kb and 6.5 kb, with 240 to 360 bp overlapping sequences,carried out in the presence (+) or absence (−) of 5% PEG-8000, using themethod shown in FIG. 1A.

FIG. 1C shows the results of assembly of 4 nucleic acid fragments, each5 kb, with 40 bp overlapping sequences, in the presence of PEG-8000,using the method shown in FIG. 1A.

FIG. 1D shows the results of assembly of a Mycoplasma genitaliumone-half genome (310 kb), from two one-quarter genome fragments, 144 kband 166 kb, with 257 bp overlapping sequences.

FIG. 1E shows the results of assembly of the complete syntheticMycoplasma genitalium genome from four one-quarter genome fragments,˜150 kb each with 80 to 257 bp overlapping sequences.

FIG. 2A is a schematic of the strategy used to analyze the success of arepaired assembly reaction. dsDNA is denatured to ssDNA in the presenceof formamide (+F), and ssDNA remains intact with a higher molecularweight if repair has occurred.

FIG. 2B shows the results of the method of FIG. 2A used to analyzeproducts assembled using the method shown in FIG. 1A.

FIG. 3 shows the results of rolling circle amplification (RCA) ofrepaired assembly products joining 4 DNA fragments, showing that onlyrepaired assembly products are amplified.

FIG. 4A is a schematic of a one-step thermocycled in vitro assemblyusing exonuclease III.

FIG. 4B shows the results of 2 assemblies of 4 different nucleic acidfragments, each 5 kb with either 300 bp or 40 bp overlapping sequences,using the method shown in FIG. 4A.

FIG. 4C shows the results of analyzing the repair of the assemblyproducts, as shown in FIG. 2A.

FIG. 5A is a schematic of a one-step isothermal in vitro assembly usingT5 exonuclease.

FIG. 5B shows the results of assembly of 2 nucleic acid fragments, 4,024bp and 2,901 bp, with ˜450 bp overlapping sequences, using the methodshown in FIG. 5A, and incorporating a NotI restriction enzyme sequence.

FIG. 5C shows the results of NotI digestion of the product shown in FIG.5B.

FIG. 5D shows the results of assembly of 3 nucleic acid fragments, each˜5 kb, together with a vector sequence of ˜8 kb, with 40 bp overlappingsequences, using the method shown in FIG. 5A.

FIG. 5E shows representative results of DNA purified from E. colitransformed with the assembly product shown in FIG. 5D, and digestedwith Not I to release the assembled fragments from the vector.

FIGS. 6A-6D show the results of direct comparisons of the methods shownin FIG. 1A (T4 polymerase), FIG. 4A (exonuclease III) and FIG. 5A (T5exonuclease).

FIG. 6A shows the results of assembly of 4 nucleic acid fragments, 5.9kb to 6.2 kb, with 80 bp overlapping sequences, together with a vectorof ˜8 kb with 80 bp overlapping sequences, using the various assemblymethods described above.

FIG. 6B shows representative results of DNA purified from E. colitransformed with the assembly products shown in FIG. 6A, and digestedwith NotI to release the assembled fragments from the vector.

FIG. 6C shows the results of assembly of 2 one-quarter genomes ofMycoplasma genitalium, together with a vector of ˜8 kb with 80 bpoverlapping sequences, using the various assembly methods describedabove.

FIG. 6D shows representative results of DNA purified from E. colitransformed with the assembly products shown in FIG. 6C, and digestedwith NotI to release the assembled fragments from the vector.

FIG. 7A is a schematic illustrating the use of codon optimization tocreate a combinatorial library of assembled fragments.

FIG. 7B is a schematic illustrating the use of a multiplicity of motifand domain variants to create a combinatorial library of a gene.

FIG. 7C is a schematic illustrating the use of variant genes to create acombinatorial library of a metabolic pathway.

FIG. 8A is a schematic of an acetate utilization pathway.

FIG. 8B is a schematic illustrating the use of variant genes from 5organisms together with 4 control sequences to create a combinatoriallibrary of the acetate utilization pathway shown in FIG. 8A.

FIG. 8C is a schematic illustrating the assembly strategy for thenucleic acid fragments shown in FIG. 8B.

FIG. 8D shows the results of the assembly of an exemplary acetateutilization pathway as shown in FIG. 8C, showing assembly productreleased from the vector by restriction enzyme digest.

FIG. 9A-9F show the sequential assembly of a complete mousemitochondrial genome using the method shown in FIG. 5A (T5 exonuclease).

FIG. 9A shows the results of assembly of five 300 bp fragments, in 15reactions covering the entire mouse mitochondrial genome.

FIG. 9B shows the results of amplification of the reaction productsshown in FIG. 9A.

FIG. 9C shows the results of assembly of five 1,180 bp products of thereaction shown in FIG. 9A, in 3 reactions covering the entire mousemitochondrial genome.

FIG. 9D shows the results of amplification of the reaction productsshown in FIG. 9C.

FIG. 9E shows the results of the final assembly of the whole mousemitochondrial genome from three 5,560 bp products of the reaction shownin FIG. 9C, in a vector construct.

FIG. 9F shows the results of the final assembly of the whole mousemitochondrial genome product shown in FIG. 9F after removal of thevector sequence and recircularization.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Modes of Carrying Out theInvention Definitions

As used herein, the singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” include pluralreferents unless the context clearly dictates otherwise.

The term “about,” as used herein, refers to plus or minus 20%. Thus,“about” 30 minutes includes 24-30 minutes. “About” also refers to plusor minus 20% when referring to lengths of nucleic acids, temperatures,etc. The end points of ranges, as used herein, are included in therange. When plus or minus 20% results in a non-integral value ofindivisible units, such as nucleotides, a skilled worker will recognizethat one should round the value to the nearest integer. For example,about 8 nucleotides is not 6.4 to 9.6 nucleotides, but should beinterpreted as 6 to 10 nucleotides.

The term “activity temperature” refers to the temperature above whichthe DNA polymerase is sufficiently more active than the exonuclease(i.e., exonuclease III) such that there is a net reduction in the lengthof the single-strand overhangs created initially by the exonuclease(i.e., exonuclease III).

In those methods of the invention that are carried out “in vitro”, allof the protein components are isolated and/or substantially purified.The in vitro assembly reactions are not carried out in a living cell orwith a crude cell extract; the reactions are carried out in a cell-freeenvironment.

The “joining” of DNA molecules by a method of the invention is sometimesreferred to herein as “recombination” or “assembly” of the DNAmolecules.

According to the present invention, optimization at the genetic level isachieved in a systematic manner by design of discrete components. Thisis true at all levels of combination as described above. The inventionmethods thereby avoid the random nature of prior art approaches.

Methods of Nucleotide Assembly

In brief, when the DNA molecules to be joined are double-stranded, thepreferred method comprises incubating the DNA molecules with (a) anexonuclease (e.g., a non-processive exonuclease), which “chews-back” theends of the double-stranded DNA molecules, to expose single-strandedoverhangs comprising the regions of overlap; (b) a crowding agent, suchas PEG, which, among other functions, accelerates nucleic acidannealing, so that the single-stranded overhangs are annealed(hybridized) specifically; (c) a non-strand-displacing DNA polymerase,which fills in remaining single-stranded gaps in the annealed molecules,by extending the 3′ ends of the annealed regions; and (d) a thermostableligase, which seals (ligates) the nicks thus formed. For single-strandedmolecules, the exonuclease of (a) may be, but need not be, omitted.

When the DNA molecules to be joined are single-stranded, thesingle-stranded DNA molecules (e.g., oligonucleotides of about 40-60bases, also referred to herein as nucleotides or nt) anneal via thesequences of identity at their ends (e.g., about 20 bases), to formgapped molecules. The exonuclease activity may act on these gappedmolecules to increase the size of the gap. The gapped molecules are thenrepaired with the polymerase and the ligase, as above, to form doublestranded molecules.

The novel one-step methods of the invention can be used tosimultaneously join a large number of DNA molecules. To accomplish this,the DNA molecules to be joined are designed so that, for each pair ofDNA molecules to be joined contain overlapping sequences at theirtermini—i.e., the distal region of one DNA molecule comprises a regionof unique sequence homology (e.g., identity) with the proximal region ofthe other DNA molecule. Distal and proximal refer to an arbitraryreference point at one end of a chain of molecules, e.g., with respectto the referent X,

A represents a proximal and B represents a distal region. To facilitatethe joining of the DNA molecules in a predetermined orientation andorder, each set of distal and proximal regions of sequence identity isselected (designed) to be unique (to be different from the regions ofsequence identity of the other pairs of DNA molecules). The methodallows a number of DNA molecules to be joined in a single reactionmixture, and in a single vessel. It will be evident that the regions ofhomology are, in some circumstances, complementary. The term a “regionof sequence identity” encompasses both identical and complementarysequences.

In methods of the invention, the distal region of one of a pair of dsDNAmolecules to be joined shares a region of sequence homology (e.g.,sequence identity) with the proximal region of the other dsDNA molecule.The term “distal” as used herein refers to the 3′ end of a first DNAmolecule of a pair to be joined (the 5′-most DNA molecule), and the term“proximal” refers to the 5′ end of the second DNA molecule of the pair.The regions of homology are sometimes referred to herein as “overlaps”,“overlapping sequences”, or “regions of overlap.” A “region of sequencehomology (identity)”, as used herein, refers to both strands of thedouble-stranded DNA molecule. Thus, one strand from this region canhybridize specifically to its complementary strand, e.g., when thecomplementary regions are present in single-stranded overhangs from thedistal and proximal regions of the two molecules to be joined.

In one embodiment, the DNA molecules which are joined are syntheticallygenerated DNA molecules that may lie adjacent to one another in a geneor genome of interest. For example, a first set of about eight 60-mersingle-stranded oligonucleotides (oligos) having 20 base regions ofsequence identity at either end may be joined in the proper order andorientation to form a dsDNA of 300 bp. A second set of a similar numberof adjoining DNA molecules of about the same size may also be joined;and then, in a second stage assembly, the two sets of joined moleculesare joined to one another. The process is repeated with further sets ofDNA molecules, in as many cycles as desired. In such a manner, thecomponent elements of a gene or genome, all or nearly all of which havebeen generated synthetically, can be joined in sequential steps to forma complete gene or genome.

Advantages of the method of the invention include the ability to performthe joining reactions under well-defined conditions, usingwell-characterized, isolated (e.g., substantially purified) enzymes.This allows the joining reactions to be controlled and reproducible. Ina method of the invention, the joining process is not subject tocompeting reactions brought about by other enzymes in the reactionmixture, such as exonucleases and endonucleases which can be present incells or cell extracts. The joining methods of the invention areaccurate, inexpensive, require very little sample handling, and can becompleted rapidly (e.g., between about 15 minutes and an hour, such asbetween about 15 and about 30 minutes) in single vessel. If desired, thesteps of the method can be carried out robotically, without theintervention of an investigator.

Other advantages of a method of the invention include the following: theability to join DNA molecules in a defined order and orientation allows,for example, for the cloning of one or more fragments of interest into alinearized vector in a defined orientation; or for the assembly ofcomponent DNA portions of a longer sequence of interest (such as theassembly of component parts of a synthetic gene or genome); or for theassembly and cloning of sub-fragments of a DNA which are too large toclone using a PCR amplification step. The method allows one to joinand/or clone DNA molecules of interest without having to rely on thepresence of restriction enzyme recognition sites at the ends of thefragments to be joined. The in vitro procedure also allows one toassemble DNAs that are unstable or otherwise recalcitrant to in vivocloning, and thus would be difficult to clone by a method requiringtransformation into and replication in a bacterium. If desired, DNAsassembled by a method of the invention can then be amplified in vitro(e.g., by multiple displacement amplification (MDA), such as rollingcircle amplification (RCA); or by PCR), again without having to passagethe DNA through a bacterium. If desired, DNA molecules can be assembledin the presence of vector, so that the cloned sequence can betransformed into a suitable host cell directly after the assembly iscomplete.

These methods can be repeated sequentially, to assemble larger andlarger molecules. For example, a method of the invention can compriserepeating a method as above to join a second set of two or more DNAmolecules of interest to one another, and then repeating the methodagain to join the first and second set DNA molecules of interest, and soon. At any stage during these multiple rounds of assembly, the assembledDNA can be amplified by transforming it into a suitable microorganism,or it can be amplified in vitro (e.g., with PCR or rolling circleamplification (RCA)).

In one aspect of the invention, the DNA molecules of interest aresingle-stranded oligonucleotides that are about 40-60 bases in length,and the region of sequence identity consists of no more than 20 bases.In other aspects of the invention, the DNA molecules of interest aredouble-stranded DNA molecules of at least about 100, 200, 500, 1,000,5,000, 50,000, 100,000, 200,000, 500,000, or 1×10⁶ bp in length. Theregions of sequence identity in these dsDNA molecules may comprise atleast about 20, 30 or 40 nucleotides (nt), e.g., at least about 80, 300,500 or more nt.

The methods of the invention may be used to join at least about 8 DNAoligonucleotides (oligos), e.g., as many as about 100 oligonucleotidesin a single concerted reaction, to generate one contiguous DNA. In asingle vessel, many such concerted reactions can take placesimultaneously. For example, in a single vessel, hundreds of reactionscan be performed simultaneously, in each of which 8 oligonucleotides areassembled to form a contiguous DNA, resulting in hundreds of contiguousDNAs. For the joining of dsDNA molecules in a single concerted reaction,there may at least about 4 (e.g., at least about 5, 10, 25, 50, 75 or100 molecules), wherein for each pair of molecules to be joined, thedistal region of one DNA molecule comprises a region of sequencehomology to the proximal region of the other DNA molecule, and each setof distal and proximal regions of homology is unique for each pair ofDNA molecules to be joined.

In a joining reaction of the invention, the collection of DNA moleculesof interest to be joined can further comprise a linearized vector DNAmolecule, and the joined DNAs of interest can thus be cloned into thevector. Such molecules can, if desired, be transformed into a host cell(e.g., a microorganism, such as a bacterium (e.g., E. coli), yeast or aeukaryotic cell, such as a mammalian cell).

In methods of the invention, one or more (e.g., all) of the DNAmolecules can be generated synthetically. The DNA molecules may beadjacent sequences of a gene or genome of interest. In one embodiment,the DNA molecules are synthesized so as to comprise overlapping regionsof sequence identity at their ends, and the DNA molecules are joined toform part or all of a synthetic gene or genome.

In one aspect of the invention, each of the DNA molecules of interest tobe joined comprises, at the free end of each of the two regions ofidentity, a sequence that is non-homologous to any of the DNA moleculesof interest; and during the joining reaction, the non-homologoussequences are removed by the 3′ exonuclease activity of the polymerase(for the isothermal method) or the 5′ exonuclease activity of thepolymerase for the thermocycled method. The non-homologous sequences maycomprise one or more binding domains for PCR primers (e.g., fourdifferent binding domains), and/or recognition sites for one or morerestriction enzymes.

Thus, methods of the invention can be readily adapted to be automatedand high throughput (e.g., carried out by robotic methods).

Chew-Back

In methods of the invention, the exonuclease digestion is carried outunder conditions that are effective to chew-back a sufficient number ofnucleotides to allow for specific annealing of the exposedsingle-stranded regions of homology. In general, at least the entireregion of overlap is chewed back, leaving overhangs which comprise theregion of overlap. In some methods, the exonuclease digestion may becarried out by a polymerase in the absence of dNTPs (e.g., T5 DNApolymerase) while in other methods, the exonuclease digestion may becarried out by an exonuclease in the presence of dNTPs that lackspolymerase activity (e.g., exonuclease III).

In other embodiments, e.g., when the region of overlap is very long, itmay only be necessary to chew-back a portion of the region (e.g., morethan half of the region), provided that the single-stranded overhangsthus generated are of sufficient length and base content to annealspecifically under the conditions of the reaction. By “annealingspecifically” is meant herein that a particular pair of single-strandedoverhangs will anneal preferentially (or only) to one another, ratherthan to other single-stranded overhangs which are present in thereaction mixture. By “preferentially” is meant that at least about 95%of the overhangs will anneal to the paired overhang. A skilled workercan readily determine the optimal length for achieving specificannealing of a sequence of interest under a given set of reactionconditions. Generally, the homologous regions of overlap (thesingle-stranded overhangs or their complements) contain identicalsequences. However, partially identical sequences may be used, providedthat the single-stranded overhangs can anneal specifically under theconditions of the reactions.

Crowding Agent

A suitable amount of a crowding agent, such as PEG, in the reactionmixture allows for, enhances, or facilitates molecular crowding. Withoutwishing to be bound by any particular mechanism, it is suggested that acrowding agent, which allows for molecular crowding, binds to and tiesup water in a solution, allowing components of the solution to come intocloser contact with one another. For example, DNA molecules to berecombined can come into closer proximity; this thus facilitates theannealing of the single-stranded overhangs. Also, it is suggested thatenzymes can come into closer contact with their DNA substrates and canbe stabilized by the removal of water molecules. A variety of suitablecrowding agents will be evident to the skilled worker. These include avariety of well-known macromolecules, such as polymers, e.g.,polyethylene glycol (PEG); FICOLL®, such as FICOLL® 70; dextran, such asdextran 70; or the like. Much of the discussion in this application isdirected to PEG. However, the discussion is meant also to apply to othersuitable crowding agents. A skilled worker will recognize how toimplement routine changes in the method in order to accommodate the useof other crowding agents.

In general, when PEG is used, a concentration of about 5%(weight/volume) is optimal. However, the amount of PEG can range, e.g.,from about 3 to about 7%. Any suitable size of PEG can be used, e.g.,ranging from about PEG-200 (e.g., PEG-4000, PEG-6000, or PEG-8000) toabout PEG-20,000, or even higher. In the Examples herein, PEG-8000 wasused. The crowding agent can, in addition to enhancing the annealingreaction, enhance ligation.

Gap Repair

Following the annealing of single stranded DNA (either overhangsproduced by the action of exonuclease when the DNA molecules to bejoined are dsDNA, or the regions of sequence identity of single strandedDNA molecules when the DNAs to be joined are single-stranded DNA), thesingle-stranded gaps left by the exonuclease are filled in with asuitable thermostable, non-strand-displacing, DNA polymerase (sometimesreferred to herein as a “polymerase”) and the nicks thus formed a sealedwith a thermostable ligase. A “non-strand-displacing DNA polymerase,” asused herein, is a DNA polymerase that terminates synthesis of DNA whenit encounters DNA strands which lie in its path as it proceeds to copy adsDNA molecule, or that degrades the encountered DNA strands as itproceeds while concurrently filling in the gap thus created, therebygenerating a “moving nick” (nick translation).

The nicks generated by the gap-filling reaction can be sealed with anyof a variety of suitable thermostable DNA ligases (sometimes referred toherein as “ligases”). Among the suitable ligases are, for example, Taqligase, Ampligase Thermostable DNA ligase (Epicentre Biotechnologies),the Thermostable ligases disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,576,453,Thermostable Tfi DNA ligase from Bioneer, Inc., etc.

Generally, substantially all of the nicks (or all of the nicks) aresealed during the reaction procedure. However, in one embodiment, joinedDNA which still comprises some nicks can be transformed into abacterium, such as E. coli, where the nicks are sealed by the bacterialmachinery.

The amount of the enzymes used in a method of the invention can bedetermined empirically. Generally, the amount of 5′ exonuclease activityis substantially lower than the amount of the polymerase activity, andligase activity is in large excess over the polymerase. Suitable amountsof enzymes to be used in a method of the invention are illustrated inthe Examples herein.

Reaction components (such as salts, buffers, a suitable energy source(such as ATP or NAD), pH of the reaction mixture, etc.) that are presentin a reaction mixture of the invention may not be optimal for theindividual enzymes (exonuclease, polymerase and ligase); rather, theyserve as a compromise that is effective for the entire set of reactions.Some exemplary reaction conditions are presented in the Examples. Forexample, one suitable buffer system identified by the inventors,sometimes referred to herein as ISO (ISOthermal) Buffer typicallycomprises 0.1 M Tris-Cl pH 7.5; 10 mM MgCl₂, 0.2 mM each of dGTP, dATP,dTTP and dCTP, 10 mM DTT, 5% PEG-8000, and 1 mM NAD.

In a method of the invention, the proteins having exonuclease,polymerase and ligase activities are isolated (e.g., substantiallypurified); cell extracts or intact cells are not employed. The term, an“isolated” protein, as used herein, means that the protein is removedfrom its original environment (e.g., the natural environment if it isnaturally occurring), and isolated or separated from most othercomponent with which it is naturally associated. For example, anaturally-occurring protein present in its natural living host (e.g., abacteriophage protein present in a bacterium that has been infected withthe phage) is not isolated, but the same protein, separated from some orall of the coexisting materials in the natural system, is isolated. Suchproteins can be part of a composition or reaction mixture, and still beisolated in that such composition or reaction mixture is not part of itsnatural environment. The term “an isolated protein,” as used herein, caninclude 1, 2, 3, 4 or more copies of the protein, i.e., the protein canbe in the form of a monomer, or it can be in the form of a multimer,such as dimer, trimer, tetramer or the like, depending on the particularprotein under consideration. In some embodiments, the protein ispurified. Methods for purifying the proteins used in methods of theinvention are conventional. In some embodiments, the protein issubstantially purified or is purified to homogeneity. By “substantiallypurified” is meant that the protein is separated and is essentially freefrom other proteins, i.e., the protein is the primary and activeconstituent. The purified protein can then be contacted with the DNAs tobe joined. Proteins used in the methods of the invention can be in theform of “active fragments,” rather than the full-length proteins,provided that the fragments retain the activities (enzymatic activitiesor binding activities) required to achieve the joining. One of skill inthe art will recognize how to make and use such active fragments.

Joining DNA Molecules

In methods of the invention, at least two DNA molecules are contactedwith the enzymes under conditions effective to join the DNA molecules toform a substantially intact (preferably having no nicks) double-strandedDNA molecule (e.g., in which a single copy of the region of sequenceidentity is retained).

A method of the invention can be used to join any DNA molecules ofinterest, including DNAs which are naturally occurring, cloned DNAmolecules, synthetically generated DNAs, etc. The joined DNA moleculesmay, if desired, be cloned into a vector (e.g., using a method of theinvention).

DNA molecules of any length can be joined by methods of the invention.Single-stranded oligonucleotides of about 40-60 bases can be joined,e.g., via overlaps of about 20 bases. The minimum size for joiningmolecules with a 40 bp overlap is about 80 bp. For molecules with a 200bp overlap, the minimum size is about 400 bp. Theoretically, thereshould be no maximum size of DNA molecules that can be joined (althoughvery large molecules would be more fragile than smaller ones, and thussubject to possible breakage). For example, cassettes having about 100bp to about 750 or 1,000, or more, can be joined.

From two to an essentially unlimited upper level of DNA molecules can bejoined. In general, at least about 5-10 fragments can be joined. Thenumber of fragments which can be joined depends, in part, on the lengthof the overlaps and the lengths of the fragments. For example, withfragments having overhangs of about 150 to about 200 bp (e.g., fragmentsof about 3 kb, or larger or smaller), the number of fragments that canbe joined is substantially unlimited. The number of fragments that canbe joined in one reaction also depends, in part, on the efficiency ofthe joining process. If the efficiency of joining is 100%, then aninfinite number of DNA molecules could theoretically be joined (providedthat an approximately equal number of molecules of each substrate ispresent in the reaction). With lower efficiencies (e.g., about 75-90%joining of each pair of two molecules), two to about 250 DNA moleculescan be joined. Methods of the invention work well with a wide range ofsubstrate DNA (e.g., about 10 to about 1,000 ng of each substrate in areaction mixture.)

In some embodiments of the invention, the joined DNA molecules form acircle and/or become ligated into a vector to form a circle. The lowersize limit for a dsDNA to circularize is about 200 base pairs.Therefore, the total length of the joined fragments (including, in somecases, the length of the vector) is preferably at least about 200 bp inlength. There is no practical upper size limit, and joined DNAs of a fewhundred kilobase pairs, or larger, can be generated by a method of theinvention. The joined DNAs can take the form of either a circle or alinear molecule.

More particularly, the number of DNA molecules or cassettes that may bejoined in vitro to produce an end product, in one or several assemblystages according to the invention, may be at least or no greater thanabout 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, 15, 20, 25, 50, 100, 200, 500, 1,000, or 10,000DNA molecules, for example in the range of about 4 to about 100molecules. The number of assembly stages may be about 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, ormore. The number of molecules assembled in a single stage may be in therange of about 2 to about 10 molecules. The methods of the invention maybe used to join together DNA molecules or cassettes each of which has astarting size of at least or no greater than about 40 bs, 60 bs, 80 bs,100 bs, 500 bs, 1 kb, 3 kb, 5 kb, 6 kb, 10 kb, 18 kb, 20 kb, 25 kb, 32kb, 50 kb, 65 kb, 75 kb, 150 kb, 300 kb, 500 kb, 600 kb, 1 Mb, orlarger, for example in the range of about 3 kb to about 500 kb. The DNAend products of the inventive methods may be at least about 500 bs, 1kb, 3 kb, 5 kb, 6 kb, 10 kb, 18 kb, 20 kb, 25 kb, 32 kb, 50 kb, 65 kb,75 kb, 150 kb, 300 kb, 500 kb, 600 kb, 1 Mb, or larger, for example inthe range of 30 kb to 1 Mb. In one embodiment, the inventive methods areused for the in vitro assembly of short single-strandedoligonucleotides, through several rounds of assembly, into cassettes ofabout 6 kb, and then the assembly of 100 such cassettes into a DNAmolecule of about 600 kb.

When joining a mixture of DNA molecules, it is preferable that the DNAsbe present in approximately equimolar amounts. If the number of DNAmolecules is not balanced, the result would be a termination ofassembled species. For example, consider an example in which 8 DNAmolecules are to be assembled (numbered 1-8). If, for example, there wasan excess of molecule number 4, the majority of assembled moleculeswould be 1-4 and 4-8. Assuming only a few hundred bases is being chewedback in the reaction, there would be no sequence homology between thedistal region of 1-4 and the proximal region of 4-8, thereby decreasingthe amount of 1-8.

Region of Sequence Homology

The region of sequence identity should be sufficiently long to allowspecific recombination to occur. That is, it should be long enough sothat the region of overlap at the ends of two DNA molecules to be joinedis unique to those DNA molecules, and no other DNA molecules will annealto those two DNA molecules during the recombination reaction. The lengthcan vary from a minimum of about 10 base pairs (bp) to about 300 bp ormore. In general, it is preferable that the length of the overlap isless than or equal to about the size of the fragment to be combined, butnot less than about 10 bp and not more that about 1000 bp. For thejoining of 2 or 3 fragments, about 20-30 bp overlap may be sufficient.For more than 10 fragments, a preferred overlap is about 80 bp to about300 bp. In one embodiment, the region of sequence identity is of alength that allows it to be generated readily by synthetic methods,e.g., about 40 bp (e.g., about 32 to about 48 bp). The overlaps may be,e.g., about 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 150, 200, 250, 300,350, 400, 450, 500, 550, 600, 650, 700, 750, 800, 850, 900, 950 or 1,000bp in length.

In a preferred embodiment, when a plurality of DNA molecules are to bejoined, for each pair of DNA molecules to be joined, the distal regionof one of the DNA molecules of the pair is designed to share a region ofsequence identity with the proximal region of the other DNA molecule ofthe pair, and the distal and proximal regions of sequence identity foreach pair of DNA molecules are designed to be unique (to be differentfrom the regions of sequence identity of the other pairs of DNAmolecules). When the overlapping regions of identity are designed inthis manner, the orientation and order of the DNA molecules in thejoined molecule can be predetermined. A number of DNA molecules (forexample, 4 or 6 molecules) can thus be incubated together in a singlereaction mixture (in a single vessel or container) in a method of theinvention, and be joined into a longer DNA molecule in which theindividual DNAs are arranged in any desired order and orientation.

The regions of sequence identity present in the proximal and distalregions of the DNAs to be joined can be generated by any of a variety ofmethods.

For example, in one embodiment of the invention, synthetically prepared,overlapping fragments of a gene or genome of interest (e.g., about 5-6kb in length, or longer or shorter) are optionally amplified (e.g., byPCR, or by MDA such as a rolling circle mechanism) and are joined by amethod of the invention in the order and orientation in which they arelocated in the gene or genome. In this method, the first DNA fragment(e.g., in the 5′ most portion of the gene or genome) is synthesized sothat the region at its 3′ end (the distal end) contains a sequence(e.g., about 40 bp) that is identical to the sequence at the 5′ end (theproximal end) of the DNA fragment to which it is to be joined. Thesecond DNA fragment, in turn, is synthesized so that it has, at itsdistal end, a sequence which is identical to the sequence at theproximal end of the third DNA fragment, and so on. In anotherembodiment, synthetically prepared fragments of a gene or genome ofinterest are inserted into a vector, propagated in E. coli to make moreof the synthetically prepared fragment, then released from the vector,optionally amplified further by PCR, MDA or RCA, and joined by a methodof the invention in the order and orientation in which they are locatedin the gene or genome. These procedures allow the preparation of asynthetic gene or genome.

In another embodiment of the invention, two fragments to be joined aregenerated by restriction enzyme digestion, such that the fragmentsoverlap one another, e.g., by about 20 to about 1,000 bp. Theoverlapping regions can then be joined by a method of the invention.Greater numbers of fragments can also be generated by these methods andjoined. Combinations of the preceding method and methods usingsynthetically prepared DNA molecules and/or molecules generated by PCRcan be used.

In one embodiment of the invention, chemically synthesizedoligonucleotides, from about 20 bp to any size that can be synthesizedchemically, can be used. For example, 10 ssDNA oligonucleotides of about60 bp, having about 10-20 bp homology overlap at each end, can beassembled simultaneously into a vector. The assembly of 10 sucholigonucleotides results in a dsDNA molecule of about 500 bp. DNAmolecules assembled by this method can, in turn, be joined to one ormore other DNA molecules assembled by this (or another) method (forexample, assemblies of about 500 bp). Repetitions of the method cangenerate very large molecules of DNA; there is no theoretical limit tothe size of a DNA molecule thus generated.

In embodiments of the invention, the regions of identity are introducedby PCR amplification.

In one such method, a fragment of interest is inserted into a vector.For example, a plasmid vector can be linearized with a restrictionenzyme, generating a sequence A (e.g., having 40 bp) to the left of therestriction enzyme cut and a sequence B (e.g., having 40 bp) to theright of the restriction enzyme cut. The fragment to be cloned into thevector is PCR amplified, using PCR primers which will introduce sequenceA at the left end of the fragment, and sequence B at the right end ofthe fragment. The regions of sequence identity (in this example, eachhaving 40 bp) allow the fragment to be joined to the vector in a desiredorientation, to form a circular molecule. Alternatively, particularlywhen it is desirable to avoid errors which might be introduced into aninsert during PCR amplification, the vector can be PCR amplified inorder to introduce at the ends of a cloning site sequences which overlapsequences at the ends of the insert. The methods described above allowfor the directional cloning of any insert of interest, without having torely on the presence of, or introduction of, restriction enzyme sites onthe insert.

In a variation of the preceding method, two or more DNA fragments arejoined to one another to form a linear molecule. In this variation ofthe preceding method, regions of sequence identity that are unique toeach pair of fragments to be joined are introduced into the fragments byPCR amplification, using suitable primers. For each DNA fragment to bejoined to another fragment, a sequence is introduced to the 3′ (distal)end of the first fragment which overlaps with the sequence at the 5′(proximal) end of the fragment to which it is to be joined. As in thepreceding method, PCR primers are used in which the regions of sequenceidentity (e.g., 40 nt) lie 5′ to a PCR primer (e.g., having 20 nt).After a suitable number of rounds of PCR amplification, DNA fragmentsare produced in which defined regions of sequence identity are presentat the ends of the fragments. The resulting fragments can then be joinedin a predetermined order and orientation by a method of the invention.

If desired, the joined, linear DNA fragments may be circularized, orthey may be inserted into a vector to form a circle (simultaneously withthe joining of the fragments, or subsequent to that joining). Forexample, a vector can be present in the joining reaction, so that thejoined fragments are introduced into the vector. The efficiency ofjoining a large number of fragments (e.g., 6 or 8 fragments) into avector by a method of the invention is greater than when using a methodwhich employs compatible restriction enzyme sites. In a typical cloningexperiment with restriction enzymes and T4 DNA ligase, probability isnot in favor of the researcher getting multiple inserts to ligate into avector. However, in the assembly methods of the invention, a researchercan join about 6 inserts into a vector with approximately 20-50%efficiency, or greater. Furthermore, since the efficiency is high, thereis an increased ratio of recombinants to non-recombinants. Thebackground level of non-recombinants can be reduced further by isolatinga pure band by agarose gel electrophoresis (since this method produces ahigh enough yield to isolate a band on agarose gels) or with a sizingcolumn. A DNA of the desired size (having the correct number of joinedDNA molecules) can be isolated and introduced into a vector, e.g., usinga method of the invention. If the final product is a circle, there is noneed to isolate it by agarose gel electrophoresis. Rather, the samplecan be treated with an enzyme such as Plasmid-Safe™ (Epicentre), anATP-dependent DNAse that selectively hydrolyzes linear dsDNA but notcircular dsDNA. If the user's application does not require a pure clone,there may be a sufficient amount of DNA without the need to transforminto E. coli and do plasmid preparations.

In one embodiment, joined DNA molecules and/or DNA molecules insertedinto vectors are introduced into a host cell, such as a bacterial oreukaryotic cell (e.g., by transformation or transfection).Alternatively, the reaction mixture comprising the joined DNA moleculescan be introduced into a host cell; only those DNAs which haverecombined to form circular molecules can survive in the host cell. Inanother embodiment, the joined fragments and/or fragments inserted intovectors are used directly, without further passage through a cell, suchas a bacterial cell.

Molecular biology methods of the invention can be carried out usingconventional procedures. A variety of uses for the inventive method willbe evident to the skilled worker. The inventive method can besubstituted for any method in which restriction enzyme digests are usedto generate compatible sequences for joining DNA molecules. In oneembodiment of the invention, DNA molecules that are too large to beamplified by PCR can be cloned by joining sub-fragments by a method ofthe invention and then inserting them into a suitable vector. Somepieces of DNA are unstable (and therefore, unclonable) in E. coli,especially those that are high in A+T % content. A method of theinvention allows for the assembly of DNA in vitro without the need to betransformed into E. coli. Furthermore, phi29 DNA polymerase can be addedto the reaction to amplify the circular DNA. An in vitro recombinationsystem of the invention can be used to recombine any homologous DNAs ofinterest, e.g., to repair double-stranded DNA breaks or gaps, etc.Another application of the method is to introduce a mutation into a DNA.In this method, a mutation is introduced into both the upper and lowerstrand PCR primers, so the amplified fragments are 100% mutant; then thefragments are joined by the method of the invention.

One embodiment of the invention is to join cassettes, such as the 5-6 kbDNA molecules representing adjacent regions of a gene or genome ofinterest, to create combinatorial assemblies. For example, it may be ofinterest to modify a bacterial genome, such as a putative minimal genomeor a minimal genome, so that one or more of the genes is eliminated ormutated, and/or one or more additional genes is added. Suchmodifications can be carried out by dividing the genome into suitablecassettes, e.g., of about 5-6 kb, and assembling a modified genome bysubstituting a cassette containing the desired modification for theoriginal cassette. Furthermore, if it is desirable to introduce avariety of changes simultaneously (e.g., a variety of modifications of agene of interest, the addition of a variety of alternative genes, theelimination of one or more genes, etc.), one can assemble a large numberof genomes simultaneously, using a variety of cassettes corresponding tothe various modifications, in combinatorial assemblies. After the largenumber of modified sequences is assembled, preferably in a highthroughput manner, the properties of each of the modified genomes can betested to determine which modifications confer desirable properties onthe genome (or an organism comprising the genome). This “mix and match”procedure produces a variety of test genomes or organisms whoseproperties can be compared. The entire procedure can be repeated asdesired in a recursive fashion.

The disclosed methods can be used to join any nucleic acid molecules ofinterest. The nucleic acid molecules can come from any source, includinga cellular or tissue nucleic acid sample, cloned fragments or subclonesthereof, chemically synthesized nucleic acids, genomic nucleic acidsamples, cDNAs, nucleic acid molecules obtained from nucleic acidlibraries, etc. The DNAs can be radioactively labeled or can comprisebinding entities, such as biotinylated nucleotides, which can aid in thepurification of the joined DNAs. If desired, the DNA molecules to bejoined, or primers for adding overlapping regions of sequence identity,can be prepared synthetically. Conventional synthesis techniques includeusing phosphoroamidite solid-phase chemistry to join nucleotides byphosphodiester linkages. Chemistry for joining nucleotides byphosphorothioate linkages or different linkages, such asmethylphosphonate linkages, can also be used. For example, thecyanoethyl phosphoramidite method can be used, employing a Milligen orBeckman System 1 Plus DNA synthesizer (for example, Model 8700 automatedsynthesizer of Milligen-Bio search, Burlington, Mass. or ABI Model380B). Synthetic methods useful for making DNA molecules are alsodescribed by Ikuta, et al., Ann Rev. Biochem. (1984) 53:323-356,(phosphotriester and phosphite-triester methods), and Narang, et al.,Methods Enzymol. (1980) 65:610-620 (phosphotriester method). DNAsprepared by methods as above are available from commercial sources, suchas Integrated DNA Technologies (IDT), Coralville, Iowa.

Methods of the invention are amenable to automation and to adaptation tohigh throughput methods, allowing for the joining of multiple DNAmolecules simultaneously by computer-mediated and/or robotic methodsthat do not require human intervention.

DNA Modifications and Nucleotide Analogs

DNA used in a method of the invention can be modified in any of avariety of ways, provided that the modified DNA is able to function inthe method. A skilled worker can readily determine if a particularmodification allows the modified DNA to function (e.g., to be recognizedby and acted upon by enzymes used in the method).

DNAs used in methods of the invention can have one or more modifiednucleotides. For example, they may contain one or more modifications toeither the base, sugar, or phosphate moieties. Modifications to the basemoiety would include natural and synthetic modifications of A, C, G, andT as well as different purine or pyrimidine bases, such as uracil-5-yl,hypoxanthin-9-yl (I), and 2-aminoadenin-9-yl. Base modifications oftencan be combined with for example a sugar modification, such as2′-O-methoxyethyl, to achieve unique properties such as increased duplexstability.

Nucleotide analogs can also include modifications of the sugar moiety.Modifications to the sugar moiety would include natural modifications ofthe ribose and deoxyribose as well as synthetic modifications. Modifiedsugars would also include those that contain modifications at thebridging ring oxygen, such as CH₂ and S. Nucleotide sugar analogs mayalso have sugar mimetics such as cyclobutyl moieties in place of thepentofuranosyl sugar.

Nucleotide analogs can also be modified at the phosphate moiety. It isunderstood that these phosphate or modified phosphate linkages betweentwo nucleotides can be through a 3′-5′ linkage or a 2′-5′ linkage, andthe linkage can contain inverted polarity such as 3-5′ to 5′-3′ or 2′-5′to 5-2′. Various salts, mixed salts and free acid forms are alsoincluded. It is understood that nucleotide analogs need only contain asingle modification, but may also contain multiple modifications withinone of the moieties or between different moieties.

Nucleotide substitutes are nucleotides or nucleotide analogs that havehad the phosphate moiety and/or sugar moieties replaced. Nucleotidesubstitutes include molecules having similar functional properties tonucleotides, but which do not contain a phosphate moiety, such aspeptide nucleic acid (PNA). Nucleotide substitutes include moleculesthat will recognize and hybridize to complementary nucleic acids in aWatson-Crick or Hoogsteen manner, but which are linked together througha moiety other than a phosphate moiety. Nucleotide substitutes are ableto conform to a double helix type structure when interacting with theappropriate target nucleic acid.

Substitutes for the phosphate can be for example, short chain alkyl orcycloalkyl internucleoside linkages, mixed heteroatom and alkyl orcycloalkyl internucleoside linkages, or one or more short chainheteroatomic or heterocyclic internucleoside linkages. It is alsounderstood in a nucleotide substitute that both the sugar and thephosphate moieties of the nucleotide can be replaced, by for example anamide type linkage (aminoethylglycine) (PNA).

DNA molecules of the invention can be made up of different types ofnucleotides or the same type of nucleotides. The nucleotides can becomprised of bases (that is, the base portion of the nucleotide) and cancomprise different types of bases. For example, one or more of the basescan be universal bases, such as 3-nitropyrrole or 5-nitroindole; about10% to about 50% of the bases can be universal bases; about 50% or moreof the bases can be universal bases; or all of the bases can beuniversal bases.

One-Step Isothermal Method

One aspect of the invention is an in vitro method, using isolated (e.g.,substantially purified) proteins, for joining two or moredouble-stranded (ds) or single-stranded (ss) DNA molecules of interest,wherein the distal region of the first DNA molecule and the proximalregion of the second DNA molecule of each pair share a region ofsequence identity, comprising incubating the at least two DNA moleculesin a single vessel, at about 45-60° C., with

-   -   (a) a non-thermostable, 5′ (51 to 3′) exonuclease (e.g., T5 or        lambda exonuclease, and/or wherein the exonuclease is not T7        exonuclease),    -   (b) a crowding agent (e.g., PEG, such as about 5% PEG, e.g.,        PEG-8000),    -   (c) a thermostable non-strand-displacing DNA polymerase which        exhibits a 3′ exonuclease activity (e.g., a polymerase that        intrinsically exhibits a 3′ exonuclease (proofreading) activity,        such as PHUSION® or VENT_(R)® DNA polymerase; or a mixture of a        polymerase, such as Taq polymerase, which lacks a proofreading        activity, and a titered amount (usually a small amount) of an        enzyme such as PHUSION® or VENT_(R)® polymerase, which has a 3′        exonuclease activity), and    -   (d) a thermostable ligase (e.g., Taq ligase),        under conditions that are effective for joining the at least two        DNA molecules to form a substantially intact dsDNA molecule        (e.g., in which a single copy of the region of sequence identity        is retained, and/or in which unpaired, non-homologous,        single-stranded DNAs are digested and removed.

In the preferred isothermal method, the polymerase of (c) comprises a 3′exonuclease activity. This enzymatic activity can be an intrinsicproperty of the polymerase (c); for example, PHUSION® and VENT_(R)® DNApolymerases are thermostable, non-strand-displacing, DNA polymeraseswhich exhibit a proofreading activity (a 3′ exonuclease activity).Alternatively, polymerase (c) can be a combination of an enzyme such asTaq polymerase, which lacks a proofreading activity, with a titratedamount (usually a small amount) of a thermostable polymerase such asPHUSION® or VENT_(R)® polymerase, which has a 3′ exonuclease activity.This 3′ exonuclease activity is useful, for example, when it isdesirable to add sequences such as primer binding sites to the ends ofthe DNA molecules to be joined, e.g., in order to allow PCRamplification of the molecules by universal primers, but then to removethe primer binding sites during the assembly procedure. The ability touse universal primers to amplify DNA molecules to be joined, and then tobe able to remove during the assembly reaction the binding domains inthe molecules which allow the universal primers to be used, is anadvantage of the invention.

An advantage of this method of the invention is that one can join DNAmolecules which initially lack 5′ phosphorylated ends (e.g., DNAsprepared by PCR amplification), even though a 5′ phosphorylated end isrequired for ligase to join a 5′ end to a 3′ OH group. This is becausethe 5′ exonuclease, as it removes nucleotides from the 5′ end of asubstrate DNA, leaves 5′ phosphorylated ends.

Without wishing to be bound by any particular theory, it is suggestedthat, when the mixture of components is incubated at an elevatedtemperature (about 45-60° C., e.g., at about 50° C.), the DNA polymeraseis able to “win” the competition with the exonuclease activity, so thatthe gaps formed by digestion with the exonuclease are filled in by thepolymerase substantially immediately after they are formed. This isachieved because the exonuclease is not thermostable, and thus is weaklyactive at the elevated temperature and is inactivated after about 10-15minutes of incubation, whereas the polymerase functions well at the hightemperature, driving the reaction to fill in the gaps; the nickedmolecules thus formed can then be ligated by the thermostable ligase. Bya “thermostable” enzyme is meant an enzyme that can function well at atemperature of at least about 45° C.-60° C.

Because the buffer conditions for assembling DNA molecules by a methodof the invention are also suitable for PCR amplification, and anassembly mixture already contains PHUSION® polymerase, PCR can beperformed following an assembly reaction without changing the bufferconditions. In one embodiment, once assembly is completed, the vesselholding the reaction components is opened and primers for PCR are added.In another embodiment, the primers are already contained within theassembly mixture from the start of the reaction. In this embodiment,following assembly, the vessel does not have to be opened, and the PCRreaction can begin immediately and proceed by the standard procedure.When primers are contained within the assembly mixture, it may benecessary to add the primers in excess (e.g., −5,000 nM) of normalprimer concentrations in PCR (usually 500 nM), to prevent degradation ofsome or most of the PCR primers by the exonuclease during the assemblystep.

Kits for in vitro joining two or more double-stranded (ds) orsingle-stranded (ss) DNA by the preferred isothermal method, comprise,in a single container,

-   -   (a) a non-thermostable, 5′ exonuclease (e.g., wherein the exo is        T5 or lambda exonuclease; wherein the exo is T5; wherein the exo        is not T7 exonuclease),    -   (b) a crowding agent (e.g., PEG, such as about 5% PEG-8000),    -   (c) a thermostable non-strand-displacing DNA polymerase which        exhibits a 3′ exonuclease activity (e.g., a polymerase that        intrinsically exhibits a 3′ exonuclease (proofreading) activity,        such as PHUSION® and VENT_(R)® DNA polymerase; or a mixture of a        polymerase, such as Taq polymerase, which lacks a proofreading        activity, and a titered amount (usually a small amount) of an        enzyme such as PHUSION® or VENT_(R)® polymerase, which has a 3′        exonuclease activity), and    -   (d) a thermostable ligase (e.g., Taq ligase),        in suitable amounts such that, when dsDNA molecules or ssDNA        oligonucleotides are added to the kit in the presence of a        suitable buffer composition and dNTPs and incubated for about        15-60 minutes, at about 45° C. to about 60° C., the DNA        molecules are assembled, in a concerted reaction.

In one embodiment, the kit comprises the components of theOligonucleotide Assembly Mixture shown in Example III A. A kit of theinvention may be stored frozen, e.g., at about −20° C.

Any of a variety of 5′ to 3′, double-strand specificexodeoxyribonucleases may be used to chew-back the ends of DNA moleculesin the methods of the invention. The term “5′ exonuclease” is sometimesused herein to refer to a 5′ to 3′ exodeoxyribonuclease. A“non-processive” exonuclease, as used herein, is an exonuclease thatdegrades a limited number of (e.g., only a few) nucleotides during eachDNA binding event. Digestion with a 5′ exonuclease produces 3′single-stranded overhangs in the DNA molecules. Among other propertieswhich are desirable for a 5′ exonuclease are that it lacks 3′exonuclease activity, it generates 5′ phosphate ends, and it initiatesdegradation from both 5′-phosphorylated and unphosphorylated ends. Italso desirable that the enzyme can initiate digestion from the 5′ end ofa molecule, whether it is a blunt end, or it has a small 5′ or 3′recessed end. Suitable exonucleases will be evident to the skilledworker. These include, e.g., phage T5 exonuclease (phage T5 gene D15product), phage lambda exonuclease, RecE of Rac prophage, exonucleaseVIII from E. coli, phage T7 exonuclease (phage T7 gene 6 product), orany of a variety of 5′ exonuclease that are involved in homologousrecombination reactions. In one embodiment of the invention, theexonuclease is T5 exonuclease or lambda exonuclease. In anotherembodiment, the exonuclease is T5 exonuclease. In another embodiment,the exonuclease is not phage T7 exonuclease. Methods for preparing andusing exonucleases and other enzymes employed in methods of theinvention are conventional; and many are available from commercialsources, such as USB Corporation, 26111 Miles Road, Cleveland, Ohio44128, or New England Biolabs, Inc. (NEB), 240 County Road, Ipswich,Mass. 01938-2723.

When a 5′ exonuclease is used, single-stranded overhangs are generatedat the 5′ end of DNA molecules which cannot be repaired, unless, e.g.,the molecules can form a circle, or other procedures are introduced toblock exonuclease digestion of these 5′ termini. Non-strand-displacingDNA polymerases used in methods of the invention must elongate in the 5′direction from a primer molecule. Because no primer is available to beextended in the 5′-located gap in a DNA molecule which has been chewedback with a 5′ exonuclease, the gap cannot be filled in by a polymerase.In one embodiment of the invention, the DNA molecules to be joined areselected (designed) so that the two terminal DNA molecules join to oneanother to form a circle. In another embodiment, the joined DNAmolecules are designed so that they become integrated into a vectorwhich is also present in the reaction mixture. Alternatively, in oneembodiment of the invention, the 5′ ends of the terminal DNA moleculesthat are to be joined are blocked so that 5′ exonuclease cannot digestthem. The blocking agent is preferably reversible, so that the joinedDNA molecule can eventually be joined into a vector. Suitable blockingagents will be evident to the skilled worker. These include, e.g.,phosphorothioate bonds, 5′ spacer molecules, locked nucleic acid (LNA),etc.

As is discussed elsewhere herein with regard to the removal ofnon-homologous sequences, it is desirable that a thermostable,non-strand-displacing, DNA polymerase to be used in a method of theinvention exhibits a 3′ exonuclease (proofreading) activity. Amongsuitable DNA polymerases having such a 3′ exonuclease activity arePHUSION® polymerase, VENT_(R)® polymerase or DEEP VENT_(R)™ polymerase(which have strand-displacing activity when used at 55° C. or lower),Pfu polymerase and 9° N_(m)™ polymerase. Alternatively, one can use athermostable, non-strand-displacing, DNA polymerase which lacks a 3′exonuclease activity, if one also includes a small amount of a secondenzyme which can provide the 3′ exonuclease activity. For example, onecan use Taq polymerase, plus a small amount of one of the polymerasesnoted above that have 3′ exonuclease activity. A skilled worker canreadily titrate how much of the second enzyme to include, in order toachieve the desired amount of exonuclease activity.

In many of the examples used herein, PHUSION® polymerase is used. Thispolymerase is desirable because, among other properties, it exhibits ahigh degree of fidelity.

A kit for conducting this method can comprise (a) an isolated (e.g.,substantially purified) enzyme having a non-thermostable, 5′ exonucleaseactivity (e.g., T5 exonuclease or lambda exonuclease, but preferably notT7 exonuclease); (b) a crowding agent, such as PEG (e.g., about 5% finalconcentration of PEG-8000); (c)(i) an isolated thermostable,non-strand-displacing DNA polymerase which exhibits a proofreading 3′exonuclease activity (e.g., PHUSION® or VENT_(R)® polymerase); or(c)(ii) an isolated thermostable, non-strand-displacing DNA polymerasewhich does not exhibit a proofreading 3′ exonuclease activity (e.g., Taqpolymerase), in combination with a suitably small amount of a polymerasehaving a 3′ exonuclease activity (e.g., PHUSION® or VENT_(R)®polymerase); and (d) an isolated, thermostable ligase (e.g., Taq DNAligase). Other components of a kit of the invention can include asuitable buffer solution, which comprises a buffer at pH about 7.5 (suchas Tris), a suitable amount of MgCl₂, the four dNTPs, an energy source(such as ATP or NAD), and, optionally, a suitable cloning (assembly)vector, such as a pUC vector. These components can be packaged inamounts suitable for a single use, in individual vessels, to which DNAmolecules to be joined are added; or the components can be present in alarger volume, which can be distributed in aliquots suitable forindividual joining reactions.

An exemplary kit contains an optimized 1.33× mixture of Tris pH 7.5,MgGh, the four dNTPs, DTT, PEG-8000, NAD, T5 exonuclease, PHUSION®polymerase, Taq ligase and, optionally, an assembly vector. A kit of theinvention is generally packaged in a containers in which the componentsare stable, e.g., it can be stored frozen, at about −20° C.

In one embodiment of the invention, 5 μL of a pool of dsDNA or ssDNAmolecules (e.g., oligonucleotides, such as 60-mers that overlap eachother by 20 bases) to be assembled are combined with 15 μL of themixture of the kit, to generate a total of 20 μL. This mixture is thenincubated at about 45-60° C. (e.g., at about 50° C.) for about 15-60minutes (e.g., 15, 30, 45 or 60 minutes), during which time the DNAmolecules assemble into a contiguous segment of dsDNA. If desired, a kitcan further contain an assembly vector (e.g., a cloning vector), such aspUC 19, pBR322 or a BAC.

Optionally, kits of the invention comprise instructions for performingthe method, e.g., instructions for designing oligonucleotides to beassembled, and/or directions for diluting a pool of oligonucleotides toa suitable concentration. For example, the inventors have found thatabout 180 fmol/μL of each oligonucleotide in 5 μL is optimal forassembling eight 60-mers with 20 base overlaps. Other optionalcomponents of a kit of the invention include a positive control; for theexample noted above, a control can contain eight 60-mers with 20 baseoverlaps that have been demonstrated to assemble by a method of theinvention, as well as a vector, such as pUC19. A kit can also contain,if cloning of the assembled DNAs is desired, instructions fortransforming the assembled mixture into a suitable microorganism, suchas E. coli, and selecting for transformants on an agar plate containinggrowth medium (e.g., LB) and a suitable selective marker (e.g., forpUC19, carbenicillin or ampicillin). A kit can also compriseinstructions concerning suitable strains for transformation, parametersfor electroporation, etc.

One-Step Thermocycled Method

Another aspect provides a method comprising incubating the ds DNA or ssDNA molecules with

-   -   (a) a non-thermostable, 3′ exonuclease operable in the presence        of dNTPs, which “chews-back” the ends of the double-stranded DNA        molecules, to expose single-stranded overhangs comprising the        regions of overlap;    -   (b) a crowding agent;    -   (c) a thermostable non-strand-displacing DNA polymerase        conjugated to a moiety in a temperature-sensitive manner to        block the polymerase activity below the activity temperature;    -   (d) a thermostable ligase, which seals (ligates) the nicks thus        formed;    -   (e) dNTPs; and    -   (f) a suitable buffer.

The exonuclease of (a) is rendered inactive at a high temperature (e.g.,75° C.). The exonuclease is active at a lower temperature, e.g., 37° C.

The polymerase of (b) may exhibit an activity temperature between 37° C.and 75° C. and the polymerase may be active above this temperature.Without wishing to be bound by a particular mechanism, the inactivatingmoiety remains conjugated to the polymerase below the activitytemperature. At the activity temperature, the antibody becomes unboundand the polymerase exhibits activity. For example, at 75° C., theantibody is unbound from the polymerase and the polymerase is active.

Preferably, the ligase of (c) is thermostable at 75° C. or higher. Theligase need not be active at 75° C. or higher, but if active at a lowertemperature, the activity must be present when the temperature islowered from 75° C. or higher to the lower temperature (e.g., 60° C.).

In the method of the invention, when the mixture of components is firstincubated at a low temperature (about 30-45° C., e.g., at about 37° C.),the exonuclease is active and forms gaps on the DNA, while the DNApolymerase is inactive due to steric interference on the part of thebound inhibiting moiety such as an antibody or biotin. When thetemperature is raised to a high temperature (above 65° C., e.g., atabout 75° C.), the exonuclease is rendered inactive and the DNApolymerase is rendered active as the antibody dissociates from thepolymerase. When the temperature is lowered to about 60° C., the ligaseis active to fill in the gaps.

The entire procedure is carried out as a “one-step” reaction (in asingle tube, which does not have to be opened during the entirerecombination procedure, in a thermocycler apparatus). In one suchprocedure, a mixture of the DNAs to be joined is incubated at 37° C.with exonuclease III; Taq DNA polymerase which is rendered inactivethrough conjugation to an antibody; Taq DNA ligase; dNTPs and a buffercompatible with all of these enzymatic activities. The temperature isthen raised to 75° C. At this temperature, exonuclease III isinactivated, the chewed back DNAs begin to anneal, and the antibodybegins to dissociate from Taq DNA Polymerase, resulting in activation.The temperature is then decreased to 60° C. to complete the repairreaction (filling in the gaps and sealing the nicks).

An advantage of a method of the invention is that the particular methodallows exonuclease activity in the presence of dNTPs. Without wishing tobe bound by a particular mechanism, use of exonuclease III permitsexonuclease activity in the presence of dNTPs, while the exonucleaseactivity of T4 DNA polymerase is blocked by dNTPs. Thus, when usingexonuclease III there is no need to stop the reaction and add dNTPs in aseparate step.

Another advantage of a method of the invention is that all of the stepsmay be performed in vitro, as a complete recombination system. Othersystems known in the art require transformation into a host cell inorder to repair the nucleotide fragments produced. The current systemencompasses a repair step in vitro using the ligase such that thetransformation into a host cell is avoided. This is particularly usefulif the nucleotide to be repaired would be toxic to a host cell and thusnot able to undergo transformation.

Yet another advantage of a method of the invention is that the 5′ and 3′overhangs are repaired in the nucleotide produced. Other isothermalone-step methods do not involve repairing the 5′ and 3′ overhangs.

Another aspect of the invention is a kit for the in vitro joining of twoor more double-stranded (ds) DNA molecules of interest, wherein thedistal region of the first DNA molecule and the proximal region of thesecond DNA molecule of each pair share a unique region of sequenceidentity, comprising, in a single container,

-   -   (a) a non-thermostable, 3′ (3′ to 5′) exonuclease operable in        the presence of dNTPs,    -   (b) a crowding agent,    -   (c) a thermostable non-strand-displacing DNA polymerase        conjugated to a chemical moiety in a temperature sensitive        manner to block the polymerase activity below the activity        temperature, and    -   (d) a thermostable ligase, and optionally    -   (e) dNTPs, and    -   (f) a suitable buffer,        in suitable amounts such that, when dsDNA molecules or ssDNA        oligonucleotides and when needed, dNTPs, a crowding agent, and        as suitable buffer, are added to the contents of the mixture and        incubated for about two to ten minutes, at 37° C., then 10-40        minutes at 75° C., and then for 30 minutes to two hours at 60°        C., the DNA molecules are assembled. A kit of the invention may        be stored frozen, e.g., at about −20° C.

In an embodiment of this aspect, in step (c) the incubation steps may befive minutes at 37° C., then 20 minutes at 75° C., and then for one hourat 60° C.

Any of a variety of 3′→5′, double-strand specific exodeoxyribonucleasesmay be used to chew-back the ends of DNA molecules in the methods of theinvention. The term “3′ exonuclease” refers to a 3′→5′exodeoxyribonuclease. Suitable exonucleases will be evident to theskilled worker. These include, e.g., exonuclease III. In one embodimentof the invention, the exonuclease is exonuclease III. Methods forpreparing and using exonucleases and other enzymes employed in methodsof the invention are conventional; and many are available fromcommercial sources, such as USB Corporation, 26111 Miles Road,Cleveland, Ohio 44128, or New England Biolabs, Inc. (NEB), 240 CountyRoad, Ipswich, Mass. 01938-2723.

Preferably in the one-step thermocycled method, the 3′ exonuclease isnot active as a polymerase.

Combinatorial Methods for Optimization

In preferred embodiments, the isothermal methods of the presentinvention can be used to modify the properties of a whole nucleic acidmolecule, for example, to optimize the expression, function, activity,yield, etc., of a polypeptide encoded by the nucleic acid molecule. Thecombinatorial methods described herein provide a multitude of possiblenucleic acid sequences that can be screened for the desired outcome. Inalternative embodiments, the nucleic acids could provide other DNA orRNA products, for example, antisense RNA that is used to decrease theyield of another product in a host cell. The outcome of thecombinatorial approach is to provide a desired product that is not foundin nature, or is an improvement or optimization of a natural product.Optimized products may be synthetic components, natural components thathave been modified or rearranged, or combinations of natural andsynthetic components. One of skill in the art could envision multipleadditional applications of the combinatorial methods described herein.

Whatever the level at which recombination occurs, the intermediateproduct is a mixture of nucleic acids encoding proteins that typicallyare expressed and tested for yield and, in the embodiments other thancodon optimization, activity. Thus, typically the mixture of nucleicacids is provided with restriction sites or overlapping portions thatpermit insertion of the nucleic acids into expression systems thatcontain control sequences, notably promoters and termination signals.The choice of control sequences, depends, of course, on the host inwhich expression is to take place. The optimal control sequences for anyparticular intended host can also be determined by constructingappropriate libraries containing a multiplicity of control sequencessuch as promoters, enhancers and termination sequences and assembled ina multiplicity of genes wherein the most favorable assembly of controlsequences can be identified. Convenient hosts include E. coli, otherbacterial systems and yeast as well as other unicellular fungi.Mammalian host cells or insect host cells could also be used as couldplant cells. The choice of the host for testing is a matter ofexperimental preference and expression controls for all of these hostsare well known.

Once the mixture has been treated to insert the coding sequences intoexpression systems, it is used to transfect the appropriate cells whichare then diluted and cultured. Depending on the desired end point, theprotein activity, yield or metabolic activity of the cultures isassessed for the culture with the highest value. The nucleic acid isthen retrieved from this culture and sequenced or otherwise identifiedas the desirable sequence or sequences. Depending on the level ofoptimization—i.e., codon usage, individual protein optimization,metabolic pathway optimization, or gene synthesis, the nextcombinatorial step can be achieved by assembling optimal components.

Methods of in vitro assembly described above may be used to conduct thisprocess. Additionally, methods of in vivo assembly may be used toconduct this process, as described above. Furthermore, a combination ofin vitro and in vivo assembly may be used to conduct this process.

However, as to the various recombination systems, the initial steps ofnucleic acid construction differ in their components.

For codon optimization, as shown in FIG. 7A, a coding sequence isconstructed as shown therein by varying the codons in each nucleic acidused to assemble the coding sequence. As shown in FIG. 7A, a proteinthat includes leucine, valine, glycine and alanine is assembled fromindividual fragments where the codons for these individual amino acidsis varied. By suitable overlap segments, a mixture containing all of thenucleotides shown in FIG. 7A can be assembled in the correct order in asingle reaction mixture as described above. The resultant will befull-length coding sequences. If desired, an expression vector may alsobe added to the mixture to provide the control sequences automaticallyat this stage. The assembled coding sequences provided further withexpression controls, if necessary, are then transfected into host cells,and cultured individually and the level of protein assessed usingstandard protein determination techniques. The colonies with the highestlevels of protein production are analyzed by extracting the expressionsystem and sequencing to identify the optimal set of codons.

In general, while highest levels of production or activity are referredto, it is understood that it is not necessary to select the exacthighest value in each case. For various reasons, it may be sufficientsimply to select for satisfactory levels of these characteristics.

In more detail, a method to identify a nucleotide sequence thatoptimizes codon usages for production of a protein comprises at leastthe following steps (a) through (e). In step (a), oligomers are providedencoding portions of the protein containing degenerate forms of thecodon for an amino acid encoded in the portions, with the oligomersextended to provide flanking coding sequences with overlappingsequences. In step (b), the oligomers are treated to effect assembly ofthe coding sequence for the protein. The reassembled protein is includedin an expression system that is operably linked to control sequences toeffect its expression. In step (c), the expression system is transfectedinto a culture of compatible host cells. In step (d), the coloniesobtained from the transformed host cells are tested for levels ofproduction of the protein. In step (e), at least one colony with thehighest or a satisfactory production of the protein is obtained from theexpression system. The sequence of the portion of the expression systemthat encodes the protein is determined.

For an embodiment wherein control sequences are to be optimized, one ormore coding sequences are used in the construction of a librarycontaining a multiplicity of expression systems. The components to beassembled into the expression systems include a variety of promoters,enhancers, termination sequences and the like, the selection of whichwill depend on the nature of the intended recombinant host. Again, thecomponents are provided with overlapping sequences to assure assembly inthe correct order. Using any in vitro assembly technique, a variety ofgenes with different control sequences is obtained which are thentransfected into host cells and cultured individually to determinelevels of protein production.

In more detail, to construct a gene with optimal control sequences forexpression, the method comprises at least the following steps (a)through (e). In step (a), oligomers representing a multiplicity ofpromoters, enhancers, and termination sequences and oligomers comprisingencoding sequences for a protein are provided. In step (b), oligomers toaffect assembly of genes for the protein are treated. In step (c), theresulting genes are transfected into a culture of compatible host cells.In step (d), colonies obtained from the transformed host cells aretested for levels of production of the protein. In step (e), the gene isobtained from at least the colony with the highest or satisfactory levelof production of the protein. The sequence of the control sequencesassociated with the nucleotide sequence encoding the protein isdetermined.

At the next level, illustrated in FIG. 7B, the coding sequences ofseveral variants of a protein of given activity are assessed for motifsand domains. Nucleic acid sequences encoding each of the motifs anddomains shown are then individually synthesized and provided suitableoverlapping sequences to provide a correct order of assembly. Thesesynthetic sequences are then provided in a ligation mixture similar tothat described above with respect to codon optimization, optionallyincluding a vector to provide control sequences, and the resultingexpression systems are transfected into host cells and tested foractivity and/or yield.

To identify a nucleotide sequence that encodes an optimized form of aprotein having a desired activity, the method comprises the followingsteps (a) through (f). In step (a), domains and motifs contained in aseries of variants of the protein are identified. In step (b), oligomersencoding each of the domains and motifs from the variants are provided.In step (c), the mixture is treated to effect assembly into sequencesencoding the protein. The assembly is conducted so as to provide thecoding sequences with operably linked control sequences for expression,to obtain a mixture of expression systems. In step (d), the expressionsystems are transformed into a culture of compatible host cells. In step(e), the colonies obtained from the cells are tested for activity of theproduced protein. In step (f), the expression system is isolated from atleast the colony that produces the protein of highest or satisfactorylevel of activity. The nucleotide sequence encoding said protein is thenidentified.

At the next level, shown in FIG. 7C, variants of proteins that areresponsible for a metabolic pathway are individually synthesized, mixedand matched as described above, and tested for the production ofmetabolic products. The pathways may be assembled on a single vector ormultiple vectors may be used in successive transformations. Variants mayinclude upstream promoter elements of the genes encoding the proteinsfrom different species as well as synthetically generated upstreampromoter elements.

Finally, in one embodiment, assemblies of the desirable metabolicpathways and/or genes may be combinatorially assembled into completegenomes using a similar approach. As described in Gibson, et al.,Science (2008) 319:1215-1220, an entire bacterial genome can beassembled by a combination of in vitro and in vivo techniques. Minimalgenomes may also be assembled in this way.

In one embodiment, entire pathways may be assembled using appropriatelinkers to construct an entire genome. The methods for assembly andtesting are similar to those described above. Because assembly ofseveral DNA pieces takes place in a single reaction operating at asingle temperature, it is possible to carry out the reaction in a highlyparallel fashion to build, in stages, an entire chromosome. The pathwayvariants may all be cloned into a bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC)vector, or any other vector useful for the manipulation of large nucleicacids.

To optimize metabolic pathways, the method comprises constructingnucleic acid molecules encoding variants of each enzyme in the pathwayto be optimized. All of the encoding sequences can be assembled usingthe technique described above of overlapping sequences on a singlevector for each different pathway, or independent vectors for eachmember of the pathway can be employed by mixing the vectors for eachmember in successive transformation mixtures. Control sequences toeffect expression of the enzymes in the pathway are provided. Coloniesderived from the culture are assessed for favorable characteristicsconferred by the pathway to be optimized, and the expression systems ofsuccessful colonies are sequenced.

The construction of optimal or minimal genomes need not be based solelyon a combination of metabolic pathway assemblies. Individual genes mayalso be assembled in a similar manner or a combination of individualgenes and metabolic pathways may be so assembled. To determine thenecessity for one or more genes to a metabolic pathway, each of thesecould be systematically eliminated from the assembly.

In all of the foregoing methods, DNA molecules can be assembled usingrobotic systems at some or all of the levels described. At any stage,either in vitro or in vivo methods may be used. Assembly of entiregenomes may be desirable. Using the techniques described by Gibson, etal., chromosomes of 20-500 kb can be constructed in a combinatorialmanner as described above. For assembly of nucleotide sequences thatgenerate complete optimized metabolic pathways the optimal combinationof these systems is evaluated.

The processes described above may be conducted ab initio, withoutpreselection of putatively desirable elements or may include selectionof appropriate variant genes for each of the pathway genes from sequencedatabases, from all available sequence libraries including completedgenomes and environmental libraries. Computational approaches may beused to select the most likely candidates from the many availablechoices. Results with one combinatorial library might help to design asecond library for the same pathway that would give even betterproduction of the desired product.

Optimum codon usage for expression in the chosen production host cellcan also be designed based on computational methods and tested asdescribed above.

As noted above, appropriate regulatory signals are added for the chosenproduction host, including transcriptional promoters and terminators,and appropriate signals for initiation of protein synthesis, as well assuitable linker sequences specific for each gene-gene junction in thepathway and for joining the assembled pathway to the cloning vector.

Optimal sizes and overlaps of the individual oligonucleotides for theentire assembly, may also be designed. Design tools include a graphicalinterface to aid in initial pathway design and to view the finalsequence design. In the case of combinatorial libraries it should bepossible to call up and view any individual chromosome within thelibrary with a single mouse click on each component gene.

As to assembly of a pathway, for illustration, assuming an average genesize of 1200 bp and an average oligonucleotide size of 60 nucleotides,roughly 1200×9×10×2/60=3,600 oligonucleotides are needed for theconstruction of a 9 gene pathway, excluding control elements which aresmall relative to genes. The factor of 2 is because the oligonucleotideshave to cover both strands of the DNA. Oligonucleotides can be purchasedfrom any of a dozen or so suppliers, or synthesized automatically. Theoligonucleotides, which are supplied in 96-well oligonucleotide trays,are robotically distributed into 96-well assembly reaction trays suchthat each well in the assembly trays would contain 8 adjacentoligonucleotides in the sequence. The number of trays could then bereduced at the first assembly step from approximately 36 oligonucleotidetrays down to around 5 assembly trays. A 15 μl aliquot of the thawedassembly reaction mixture (which already includes the cloning vector asa ninth DNA piece) is transferred to each well. The trays are thenincubated for 20 minutes at 50° C. The assembly product in each wellconsists of 8 assembled oligonucleotides inserted into the vector DNA toform a circle. Aliquots of each well are pooled together, cloned andsequenced. Correct clones are transferred back into 5 trays for the nextassembly step. By sequencing up front at the first stage of assemblywhen the assemblies are small, oligonucleotide errors are weeded out,and all subsequent assemblies will generally have correct sequence.

To go from one assembly step to the next, the assemblies are “liftedout” of the vector by high fidelity PCR and aliquots are distributed tothe next set of trays for the next assembly reaction.

Assembly continues until a single tray contains 10 variants of each ofthe 9 genes. The 9 genes and their variants are then pooled into a finalassembly reaction that results in a library of 109 differentcombinations of the 9 gene pathway cloned into the BAC vector. Thiscombinatorial library is transformed into the appropriate host cell, andindividual clones are screened for product yield, etc.

The invention thus provides a method of assembling entire genomes byusing the optimized components described above. As noted above, the“entire” genome may be a minimal genome, the nature of which isdeterminable as described in the above-cited PCT publication or may bedetermined arbitrarily by selecting only certain identified componentsof the library desired. The library components may be individual genes,assemblies of individual genes according to metabolic pathways,assemblies of genes that are otherwise organized, or a combination ofindividual genes and organized systems thereof. Desirably, thecomponents are indeed optimized as described herein; however, this isnot a prerequisite. Libraries of individual genes and/or assemblies ofgenes, some or all of which may be optimized with regard to motifvariants, control sequences and/or codon usage may be used in the genomeassembly.

EXAMPLES

In the following examples, all temperatures are set forth in uncorrecteddegrees Celsius; and, unless otherwise indicated, all parts andpercentages are by weight.

Example I Thermocycled Exonuclease III One-Step Assembly System Protocol

A thermocycled one-step assembly was developed based on the use of anisolated non-thermo stable 3′ to 5′ exonuclease and an isolatedheat-activated DNA polymerase as follows. A reaction was set up on icein a 0.2 ml PCR tube containing the following: 100 ng each substrate DNAto be assembled, 20 μl of 4×CBAR buffer, 0.7 μl of exonuclease III (4U/μl, NEB), 8.0 μl of Taq DNA ligase (40 U/μl, NEB), 0.5 μl of AmpliTaq®Gold (5 U/μl, Applied Biosystems), and water to 80 μl. The 4×CBAR(Chew-back, Anneal, and Repair) Buffer was 20% PEG-8000, 600 mM Tris-Cl,40 mM MgCl₂, 40 mM DTT, 4 mM NAD, and 800 μM each dNTP (pH 7.5).

This gave a final concentration of 1.25 ng/μl of each DNA that was to beassembled, 5% PEG-8000, 150 mM Tris-Cl pH 7.5, 10 mM MgCl₂, 10 mM DTT,200 μM each dNTP, 1 mM NAD, 0.035 U/μl exonuclease III, 4 U/μl Taq DNAligase, and 0.03 U/μl AMPLITAQ GOLD®.

100 ng substrate DNA was found to be ideal for fragments between 5 kband 8 kb in length. For larger assemblies, the amount of DNA wasincreased (e.g., for fragments 20 kb to 32 kb in length, 400 ng eachsubstrate was used). Care was taken to avoid having the substrate DNAmake up more than half the volume of the reaction since this was foundto inhibit the reaction. Exonuclease III was used as a 1:25 dilution (inexonuclease III storage buffer) from the 100 U/μl exonuclease inconcentrated enzyme stock.

The reaction was added to a thermal-cycler and assembly was performedusing the following conditions: 37° C. for 5 minutes (chew-back was forat least 5 minutes at 37° C. for substrates that overlap by 40-80 bp,and 15 minutes for substrates that overlap by 300-500 bp), 75° C. for 20minutes (heat inactivation of Exo III), cool down 0.1° C./s to 60° C.(annealing), 60° C. for 1 hour (repair), and then held at 4° C.

These steps are outlined in FIG. 4A. The results obtained from thisprotocol show that this method works just as well, and has all the sameadvantages as the two-step process with T4 DNA polymerase, Taq DNApolymerase, and Taq DNA ligase, and can be used to assemble linear orcircular DNA.

Example II Isothermal T5 Exonuclease One-Step Assembly Protocol forNucleic Acids

An isothermal one-step assembly was developed based on the use of anisolated nonthermostable 5′ to 3′ exonuclease that lacks 3′ exonucleaseactivity as follows. A reaction was set up containing the following: 100fmol each dsDNA substrate or 3.6 pmol each ssDNA to be assembled, 16 μl5×ISO buffer, 16 μl T5 exonuclease (0.2 U/μl, Epicentre), 8.0 μl Taq DNAligase (40 U/μl, NEB), 1.0 μl PHUSION® DNA polymerase (2 U/μl, NEB), andwater to 80 μl. The 5×ISO (ISOthermal) buffer was 25% PEG-8000, 500 mMTris-C1, 50 mM MgCl₂, 50 mM DTT, 5 mM NAD, and 1000 μM each dNTP (pH7.5).

This gave a final concentration of 1.25 fmol/μl each dsDNA (or 45fmol/μl each ssDNA) that was to be assembled, 5% PEG-8000, 100 mMTris-Cl pH 7.5, 10 mM MgCl₂, 10 mM DTT, 200 μM each dNTP, 1 mM NAD, 0.02U/μl T5 exonuclease, 4 U/μl Taq DNA ligase, and 0.03 U/μl PHUSION® DNApolymerase.

Methods used 1.64 μl 0.2 Uμl T5 exonuclease for substrates that overlapby 20-80 bp, and for substrates that have larger overlaps (e.g., 200bp), 1.6 μl 1 U/μl T5 exonuclease was used. T5 exonuclease was used as a1:50 dilution (in T5 exonuclease storage buffer) from the 10 U/μl T5exonuclease (Epicentre) concentrated enzyme stock.

The reaction was then incubated at 50° C. for 15 minutes.

These steps are outlined in FIG. 5A. The majority of the cost tosynthesize large dsDNA molecules is from the cost of theoligonucleotides. Once the cost of producing oligonucleotides drops, sowill the cost to assemble large DNA molecules from oligonucleotidesusing the methods of the present invention.

Example III Isothermal T5 Exonuclease One-Step Assembly Protocol forSingle-Stranded Nucleic Acids

Preparation of the Oligonucleotide Assembly Mixture

The mixture in all kits contains the same ingredients with oneexception, the presence or absence of a vector. In the absence ofvector, water was substituted. The methods of the present inventionallow the quick and easy use of the same assembly mixtures and buffersformulated in kits for long term storage.

A preparation of the oligonucleotide assembly mixture (for a total 120μl volume) contains: 32 μl 5×ISO buffer, 0.064 μl 10 U/μl T5 exonuclease(Epicentre), 2 μl 2 U/μl PHUSION® polymerase (NEB), 16 μl 40 U/μl Taqligase (NEB), 2 μl 200 ng/μl pUC19 assembly vector, and 67.94 μl water.The assembly mixture was then stored at −20° C.

A preparation of the 5×ISO buffer (for a total 6 ml volume) contains: 3ml 1 M Tris-Cl pH 7.5 (final 0.5 M), 150 μl 2 M MgCl₂ (final 50 mM), 60μl each 100 mM dGTP, dATP, dTTP, dCTP (final 1 mM each), 300 μl 1 M DTT(final 50 mM), 1.5 g PEG-8000 (final 25%), 300 μl 0.1M NAD (final 5 mM),and water to 6 ml. Concentrations in parentheses refer to the finalconcentration in the 5×ISO buffer.

The final concentration of all ingredients in the OligonucleotideAssembly Mixture (mixture is 1.33× since 15 μl was added in a 20 μlfinal volume) was as follows: 133.33 mM Tris-Cl (pH 7.5), 13.33 mMMgCl₂, 266.67 μM dGTP, 266.67 μM dATP, 266.67 μM dTTP, 266.67 μM dCTP,13.33 mM DTT, 6.67% PEG-8000, 1.33 mM NAD, 5.33 Um′ T5 exonuclease(Epicentre), 33.33 U/ml PHUSION® polymerase (NEB), 5.33 U/μl Taq Ligase(NEB), and 3.33 ng/μl pUC19 assembly vector.

The above kit, at 1.33× concentration, can be stored frozen, for atleast 12 months. It can be subjected to at least ten cycles offreeze-thaw without losing activity.

Assembly of Oligonucleotides to Form a 16.5 kb Final Product Insertedinto PCCIBAC

Although this Example shows the assembly of ssDNA oligonucleotides, thesame conditions and master mix of reagents can be used for assemblingdsDNA. For example, in the first stage of assembly shown in detail here,eight single-stranded oligonucleotides are assembled to generate adouble-stranded molecule of about 300 bp. The next stage, in which the300 bp DNAs are assembled to generate larger molecules, and thesubsequent stages in which those molecules are assembled to generatestill larger molecules, can be accomplished by using the same master mixof reagents shown in the present example.

This Example describes a four stage assembly scheme. However, in anotherembodiment of the invention, 25-75 segments can be assembled at onetime. In that embodiment, the number of stages is significantly reduced,e.g., down to only two.

For the first round of assembly, a mixture (pool) of eight 60 nt(60-mer) ssDNA oligonucleotides, which overlap each other by 20 bases,and which lie adjacent to one another in a known DNA to be assembled,are diluted so that there is 180 fmol/μl of each oligonucleotide in atotal volume of 5 μl. This concentration was determined by the inventorsto be optimal for the assembly of eight 60-mers with 20 nt overlaps. 15μl of the 1.33× master mix as above is added to 50 of oligonucleotidesand incubated at 50° C. for 15-60 minutes, to form a contiguous segmentof dsDNA molecule of 300 bp. A pUC19 vector is present in the assemblymixture, so the 300 bp molecule is inserted into the vector.

Following assembly, the assembled molecule is transformed into asuitable E. coli host, and pUC19 clones are selected, using ampicillinas a selective marker. Generally, the clones are sequenced to confirmthat the assembled molecule is correct. Currently, a background ofincorrect sequences occurs because methods for synthesizingoligonucleotides are not accurate. It is expected that methods forcorrecting errors, or better methods of synthesizing theoligonucleotides, will eliminate the need for this sequencing check. Forexample, error-correcting enzymes or reagents can be added to orcontained within the assembly reaction of the current invention.Alternatively, instead of cloning the assembled DNA molecules, they canbe directly amplified by PCR, and then sequenced to confirm accuracy.

Seventy-four additional pools of eight 60-mers, from different portionsof the DNA molecule to be synthesized, are also assembled. A total of600 of these 60-mers are assembled, into a collection of 300 bp dsDNAmolecules; and in subsequent rounds of assembly, the 300-mers arePCR-amplified and assembled to form 1,180 bp dsDNAs, which are in turnPCR-amplified and assembled to form 5,560-mers, which are finallyassembled to form a dsDNA molecule of 16,520 bp. This molecule is thenamplified (by PCR, or by a method more effective to amplify largemolecules, rolling circle amplification (RCA)), cloned (e.g., into a BACvector) and sequenced to confirm that the assembly has been accurate.

In this Example, a cloning vector is used to assemble the inserts.However, if cloning into a host organism is not required for producingmore DNA molecules, since for example an in vitro method ofamplification is going to be used (e.g., PCR or RCA), then the cloningvector can be absent. However, it still may be advantageous in somecases to allow the inserts to form a circle. This would allow for theincomplete assembly products (which are linear) to be removed from thecomplete assembly product with an exonuclease (the circle would beresistant to the exonuclease activity but the incomplete assemblyproducts would not be) This can be important if an in vitro method foramplification of DNA (e.g., PCR or RCA) is inhibited by the incompleteassembly products.

Use of Universal Primer Binding Sequences at the 5′ and 3′ ends ofOligonucleotides to be Assembled

To aid in the PCR amplification of assembled oligonucleotides, in eachof the rounds of assembly, it can be advantageous to include bindingdomains (sites) at each end of the segments to be assembled (from ssDNAoligonucleotides) and amplified. These domains can be designed andintroduced into some of the oligonucleotides (e.g., the oligonucleotidesthat would end up in flanking regions of the segment being built) asthey are being synthesized. An exemplary dsDNA segment, in which fourprimer binding domains are shown, flanks the DNA molecule. In subsequentrounds of amplification and assembly, the DNAs can be PCR amplified,using “universal primers” that correspond to suitable domains, therebyeliminating the need to design separate primers for amplifying each DNAto be amplified. If desired, restriction enzyme sites (such asrare-cutter enzymes PmlI, SbfI, AscI or NotI) can also be engineered tolie between the primer binding domains. These sites can facilitatecleaving off of the primer binding sites.

One advantage of a method of the invention is that the presence of a 3′exonuclease activity during the reaction (which can be provided, e.g.,by the proofreading activity of PHUSION® polymerase) will remove all ofthe binding domains, since these will exist as single stranded DNAs thatare non-homologous to the DNAs which are being amplified. Theoligonucleotides being assembled into a vector can be 40-mers instead of60-mers. With 40-mers, there will not be a gap. The oligonucleotidesbeing assembled can be very large (e.g., several hundred bases.)Furthermore, the oligonucleotides being assembled into the vector can befrom a pool of oligonucleotides (e.g., a microchip containing 4,000 ormore oligonucleotides. A microchip can serve as an inexpensive way toobtain oligonucleotides). The cloning vector does not necessarily needto be a circular one (as indicated in this figure with pUC19). Rather,it can be a linear vector with two arms (e.g., Lucigen's pJAZZ™-KAlinear vector system). A linear vector may be advantageous forassembling oligonucleotides in excess without concatamerizationoccurring (concatamerization would lead to a single clone containing twoor more sets of assembled fragments. Therefore, this would not be a pureclone which may be desired.) The cloned oligonucleotides may betransformed into E. coli. Individual clones containing correctassemblies can be identified by a technique such as DNA sequencing.

Assembly of Large Molecules by Automation

This method shown in this Example is readily adaptable to automation.

(1) Oligonucleotides are first cloned into a vector. Currently, becauseof imperfect synthesis techniques, it is expected that some of theoligonucleotides will contain errors, so the initial clones must besequenced to confirm they are correct. The initial clones can be from E.coli or single molecule PCR. In one embodiment of the invention, anerror correction technique is employed to correct such errors; thiseliminates the need to perform DNA sequencing, and allows subsequentrounds of assembly to be carried out without having to wait for thesequencing results. (2) The DNA molecules are assembled. (3) Theassembled DNAs are amplified by PCR or RCA. (4) These DNAs areassembled. (5) The assembled DNAs are amplified by PCR or RCA. (6) Thesecycles are continued until the complete molecule is assembled. Note thatRCA allows for the amplification of larger molecules than is possiblewith PCR, so RCA is preferred for larger piece stages of assembly.Cloning into a host organism and making more of the assembled fragments,then digesting with a restriction enzyme that can release the assembledfragments intact would be equivalent to PCR or RCA.

Example IV Assembly of DNA Molecules Several Hundred Kilobases in SizeUsing Various In Vitro Methods

This Example compares three assembly methods as shown in FIG. 1A(two-step thermocycled assembly with T4 pol), FIG. 4A (one-stepthermocycled assembly with Exoin), and FIG. 5A (one-step isothermalassembly with T5 exo). The one-step isothermal assembly was found to bethe preferred in vitro assembly method.

Method 1: Two-Step Thermocycled Assembly (with T4 Pol)

A 4× chew-back and anneal (CBA) reaction buffer (20% PEG-8000, 800 mMTris-HCl pH 7.5, 40 mM MgCl₂, 4 mM DTT) was used for thermocycled DNAassembly. DNA molecules were assembled in 20 μl reactions consisting of5 μl 4×CBA buffer, 0.2 μl of 10 mg/ml BSA (NEB), and 0.4 μl of 3 U/μl T4pol (NEB). T7 pol can be substituted for T4 pol. Approximately 10-100 ngof each ˜6 kb DNA segment was added in equimolar amounts. For larger DNAsegments, increasingly proportionate amounts of DNA were added (e.g.,250 ng of each 150 kb DNA segment). Assembly reactions were prepared in0.2 ml PCR tubes and cycled as follows: 37° C. from 0 to 18 minutes, 75°C. for 20 minutes, cooled 0.1° C./s to 60° C., held at 60° C. for 30minutes, then cooled to 4° C. at a rate of 0.1° C./s. In general, achew-back time of 5 minutes is used for overlaps less than 80 bp and 15minutes for overlaps greater than 80 bp. Ten ill of the CBA reactionswere then added to 25.75 μl of Taq repair buffer (TRB), which consistsof 5.83% PEG-8000, 11.7 mM MgCl₂, 15.1 mM DTT, 311 μM each of the 4dNTPs, and 1.55 mM NAD⁺. Four μl of 40 U/μl Taq lig (NEB) and 0.25 μl of5 U/μl Taq pol (NEB) were added and the reactions were incubated at 45°C. for 15 minutes. For the T4 pol fill-in assembly method, 10 μl of theCBA reaction is mixed with 0.2 μl of 10 mM dNTPs and 0.2 μl of 3 U/μl T4pol. This reaction was carried out at 37° C. for 30 minutes.

Results: Step 1: Chew-back and anneal. The prior art 2-step in vitrorecombination method for assembling overlapping DNA molecules makes useof the 3′ exonuclease activity of T4 DNA polymerase (T4 pol) to producessDNA overhangs, and a combination of Taq DNA polymerase (Taq pol) andTaq DNA ligase (Taq lig) to repair the annealed joints. To betterunderstand the kinetics of this reaction, 8 DNA molecules, each ˜6 kband overlapping by ˜300 bp, were exposed to T4 pol at 37° C. for up to18 minutes. Samples were removed every 2 minutes and annealed. Followinga 10 minute exonuclease reaction, the majority of the input DNA wasannealed, and the predicted ˜48 kb full-length product is observed.These reactions require the presence of PEG-8000, a reagent that inducesmacromolecular crowding (see FIG. 1B).

Assembling DNA molecules with significantly smaller overlaps than 300 bpwould have several advantages. When synthetic DNA fragments are joined,smaller overlaps would reduce the overall cost of synthesis.Additionally, small overlaps can be added to PCR primers. For thesereasons, it was determined whether DNA molecules with only 40 bpoverlaps could be assembled. The assembly reaction in FIG. 1A wasperformed using 4 DNA molecules, each 5 kb in length, and overlapping by40 bp. Following a 2 minute exposure to T4 pol, all 4 DNA molecules wereefficiently assembled into the full-length 20 kb product (FIG. 1C).

It was next determined whether significantly larger DNA molecules couldbe joined by this method. Two XA molecules of the synthetic M.genitalium genome, C25-49 (144 kb) and C50-77 (166 kb), with a 257 bpoverlap, were reacted with T4 pol for 15 minutes and annealed, thenanalyzed by field-inversion gel electrophoresis (FIGE) (FIG. 1D). Theywere efficiently assembled into the 310 kb product (Mgen25-77). Further,when all 4 quarter molecules were reacted under the same conditions, thefull-length synthetic M. genitalium genome (˜583 kb) is assembled (FIG.1E).

Results: Step 2: Repairing the assembled molecules. Taq pol is apreferred gap-filling enzyme since it does not strand-displace, whichwould lead to disassembly of the joined DNA fragments. It also hasinherent 5′ exonuclease activity (or nick translation activity), whicheliminates the need to phosphorylate the input DNA (a requirement forDNA ligation). This is because 5′-phosphorylated ends are createdfollowing nick translation. Further, this activity removes anynon-complementary sequences (e.g., partial restriction sites), whichwould otherwise end up in the final joined product.

To verify that assembled DNA molecules have been successfully repaired,dsDNA products can be denatured at 94° C. in the presence of formamideand analyzed by agarose gel electrophoresis (FIG. 2A). Repair wasassessed for 2 pairs of ˜5-6 kb DNA molecules with 40 bp or 300 bpoverlaps. In each case, similar results were obtained (FIG. 2B).Assembled, but unrepaired DNA molecules (lane 1) are denatured to ssDNAinput in the presence of formamide (lane 2). In the absence of Taq lig,the nicks are not sealed and the 5′ exonuclease activity of Taq poleliminates the overlapping DNA sequence, leading to disassembly of theDNA molecules (compare lanes 3 and 4). In the presence of Taq lig (lane5), the nicks are sealed and a higher molecular weight ssDNA product isobserved (lane 6). Thus, dsDNA molecules, with as little as 40 bpoverlaps, were covalently joined by this assembly method.

Introduction of errors during DNA assembly. During in vitrorecombination, mutations may be introduced in the assembled DNA. Thefirst source for mutations is from Taq pol, which incorporates anincorrect nucleotide approximately once every 4000 nt. The second sourcefor mutations is from the primers used to PCR-amplify the bacterialartificial chromosomes (BACs). Both of these error types were observedwhen 30 assembled molecules were cloned and sequenced during thesynthesis of the M. genitalium genome. However, of the 210 repairedjunctions, there was only 1 error that likely resulted from BAC PCR.Remarkably, there were only 3 errors that can be attributed toinaccurate gap fill-in by Taq pol.

Assembly methods that employ a repair step to produce covalently sealedcircular DNA molecules allow for the possibility of RCA (e.g.,amplification by phi29 polymerase). This is not the case for assemblymethods that omit a repair step. To demonstrate this, 4 fragments, F5(1020 bp), F6, (1040 bp), F7 (2379 bp), and F8 (3246 bp), each with 40bp overlaps, were joined into a 7525 bp circle. (FIG. 3) As expected,only repaired assembled products could be amplified by phi29 polymerase.

Method 2: One-Step Thermocycled Assembly (with Exo III)

A 4× chew-back, anneal, and repair (CBAR) reaction buffer (20% PEG-8000,600 mM Tris-HCl pH 7.5, 40 mM MgCl₂, 40 mM DTT, 800 μM each of the 4dNTPs, and 4 mM NAD⁺) was used for one-step thermocycled DNA assembly.DNA molecules (added in amounts described above for CBA reactions) wereassembled in 40 μl reactions consisting of 10 μl 4× CBAR buffer, 0.35 μlof 4 U/μl ExoIII (NEB), 4 μl of 40 U/μl Taq lig, and 0.25 μl of 5 U/μlAb-Taq pol (Applied Biosystems). ExoIII was diluted 1:25 from 100 U/μlin its stored buffer (50% Glycerol, 5 mM KPO4, 200 mM KCl, 5 mM2-Mercaptoethanol, 0.05 mM EDTA, and 200 μg/ml BSA, pH 6.5). DNAassembly reactions were prepared in 0.2 ml PCR tubes and cycled usingthe following conditions: 37° C. for 5 or 15 minutes, 75° C. for 20minutes, cool down 0.1° C./s to 60° C., then held at 60° C. for 1 hour.In general, a chew-back time of 5 minutes was used for overlaps lessthan 80 bp and 15 minutes for overlaps greater than 80 bp. ExoIII isless active on 3′ protruding termini, which can result from digestionwith certain restriction enzymes. This can be overcome by removing theoverhangs to form blunt ends with the addition of T4 pol and dNTPs, asdescribed above, prior to assembly.

Results: A DNA assembly method that requires the absence of dNTPs toachieve exonuclease activity, such as the T4 pol-based system describedabove, cannot be completed in one-step. This is because dNTPs arerequired at a later point to fill-in the gapped DNA molecules.Exonuclease III (ExoIII), which removes nucleotides from the 3′ ends ofdsDNA, is fully functional even in the presence of dNTPs so it is acandidate for a 1-step reaction. However, it will compete withpolymerase for binding to the 3′ ends. To eliminate this competition,and allow for 1-step DNA assembly, antibody-bound Taq pol (Ab-Taq pol)was used in combination with ExoIII (FIG. 4A). In this assembly method,overlapping DNA fragments and all components necessary to covalentlyjoin the DNA molecules (i.e., ExoIII, Ab-Taq pol, dNTPs, and Taq lig)were added in a single tube, and placed in a thermocycler. At 37° C.,ExoIII is active (but Ab-Taq pol remains inactive) and recesses the 3′ends of the dsDNA molecules. The reaction was then shifted to 75° C.,which inactivates ExoIII. Annealing of the DNA molecules commences andthe antibody dissociates from Taq pol, thus activating this enzyme.Further annealing, extension, and ligation is then carried out at 60° C.

As shown in FIG. 4B, four 5 to 7 kb DNA molecules with 40 bp overlaps or˜300 bp overlaps can be efficiently assembled. Cassettes 78 to 81 (240bp to 300 bp overlaps) and fragments F1 to F4 (40 bp overlaps) areassembled and then analyzed by U-5 FIGE. The completely assembledproduct and unreacted input DNA are indicated with arrows. Todemonstrate that the joined DNA molecules are repaired by this method,assembly products were denatured in the presence of formamide andanalyzed on agarose gels. The DNA molecules were efficiently assembledand repaired. As indicated in FIG. 4C, Fragments F3 and F4 were reactedas described in the presence (+ Assembly) or absence (− Assembly) ofExoIII. Repair is assessed by denaturation of the dsDNA molecules in thepresence (+) or absence (−) of formamide as described in FIG. 2A.

Method 3: One-Step Isothermal Assembly (with T5 Exo)

A 5× isothermal (ISO) reaction buffer (25% PEG-8000, 500 mM Tris-HCl pH7.5, 50 mM MgCl₂, 50 mM DTT, 1 mM each of the 4 dNTPs, and 5 mM NAD⁺)was used for one-step DNA isothermal assembly at 50° C. DNA molecules(added in amounts described above for CBA reactions) were assembled in40 μl reactions consisting of 8 μl 5×ISO buffer, 0.8 μl of 0.2 U/μl or1.0 U/μl T5 exo (Epicentre), 4 μl of 40 U/μl Taq lig, and 0.5 μl of 2U/μl PHUSION® pol (NEB). T5 exo was diluted 1:50 or 1:10 from 10 U/μl inits stored buffer (50% glycerol, 50 mM Tris-HCI pH 7.5, 0.1 mM EDTA, 1mM DTT, 0.1 M NaCl, and 0.1% TRITON® X-100) depending on the overlapsize. For overlaps shorter than 150 bp, 0.2 U/μl T5 exo is used. Foroverlaps larger than 150 bp, 1.0 U/μl T5 exo is used. All isothermalassembly components can be stored at −20° C. in a single mixture at1.33× concentration for more than one year. The enzymes are still activeafter more than 10 freeze-thaw cycles. To constitute a reaction, 5 μlDNA is added to 15 μl of this mixture. Incubations are carried out at50° C. for 15 to 60 minutes, with 60 minutes being optimal.

Protocol for this DNA assembly system, including how to prepare anassembly master mixture: 1. Prepare 5×ISO buffer. Six ml of this buffercan be prepared as follows: 3 ml of 1 M Tris-HCl pH 7.5, 150 μl of 2 MMgCl2, 60 μl of 100 mM dGTP, 60 μl of 100 mM dATP, 60 μl of 100 mM dTTP,60 μl of 100 mM dCTP, 300 μl of 1 M DTT, 1.5 g PEG-8000, 300 μl of 100mM NAD⁺. Add water to 6 ml, aliquot 100 μl and store at −20° C. 2.Prepare an assembly master mixture. This can be prepared as follows: 320μl 5×ISO buffer, 0.64 μl of 10 U/μl T5 exo (Epicentre), 20 μl of 2 U/μlPHUSION® pol (NEB), and 160 μl of 40 U/μl Taq lig (NEB). Add water to1200 μl, aliquot 15 μl and store at −20° C. This is ideal for theassembly of DNA molecules with 20-150 bp overlaps. For DNA moleculesoverlapping by larger than 150 bp, use 3.2 μl of 10 U/μl T5 exo. 3. Thawa 15 μl assembly mixture aliquot and keep on ice until ready to be used.4. Add 5 μl of DNA to be assembled to the master mixture. The DNA shouldbe in equimolar amounts. Use 10-100 ng of each ˜6 kb DNA fragment. Forlarger DNA segments, increasingly proportionate amounts of DNA should beadded (e.g., 250 ng of each 150 kb DNA segment). 5. Incubate at 50° C.for 15-60 minutes (60 minutes is optimal).

Results: Exonucleases that recess dsDNA from 5′ ends, and are notinhibited by the presence of dNTPs, are also candidates for one-step DNAassembly reactions. Further, these exonucleases will not compete withpolymerase activity. Thus, all activities required for DNA assembly canbe simultaneously active in a single isothermal reaction. A 50° C.isothermal assembly system was optimized using the activities of the5′-T5 exonuclease (T5 exo), PHUSION® DNA polymerase (PHUSION® pol), andTaq lig (FIG. 5A). Taq pol can be used in place of PHUSION® pol;however, PHUSION® pol is preferable since it has inherent proofreadingactivity for removing non-complementary sequences from assembledmolecules. Further, PHUSION® pol has a significantly lower error rate(New England Biolabs). To test this system, 2 restriction fragmentsoverlapping by −450 bp were cleaved from the 6 kb pRS415 vector andreassembled into a circle (FIG. 5B). Following 8 minutes at 50° C., thelinear substrate DNA is completely reacted and/or degraded, and themajor product is the 6 kb circle, which migrated just below the 4 kblinear position on a 0.8% agarose gel. T5 exo becomes inactive, and nolonger participates in DNA assembly following incubation at 50° C. for12 minutes. T5 exo actively degrades linear DNA molecules; however,closed circular DNA molecules are not degraded. The circularity of thisassembled product is confirmed by treating with additional T5 exo (FIG.5B). To demonstrate that this assembled product is the predicted 6 kbcircle, it was digested with NotI (a single-cutter). The 6 kb linearfragment was then observed (FIG. 5C). Thus, DNA molecules can beassembled and repaired in a single, isothermal step using this method.

It was next shown that molecules with 40 bp overlaps could also bejoined. This was accomplished if the concentration of T5 exo was reduced(FIG. 5D). Three 5 kb DNA fragments, F1 to F3, were efficientlyassembled into BAC-F1/F3 (˜8 kb). Further, when the assembled DNAmolecules from the 4 U/ml T5 exo reaction were transformed into E. coli,450 colonies were obtained and 9 out of 10 colonies had the predicted 15kb insert (FIG. 5E).

General Accessory Methods

Preparation of DNA molecules for in vitro recombination. The DNAmolecules used in the assembly analyses are derived from several sourcesincluding (i) the assembly intermediates of the synthetic M. genitaliumgenome, (ii) PCR products derived from plasmids (F6 and F8), Clostridiumcellulolyticum genomic DNA (F1 to F4), and Mycoplasma gallisepticumgenomic DNA (F5 and F7), and (iii) pRS415 restriction fragments. In someinstances, DNA fragments were extracted from agarose gels; however, ingeneral this is not necessary. DNA molecules were dissolved or elutedwith Tris/EDTA (TE) buffer pH 8.0 and quantified by agarosegel-electrophoresis with standards. Specific protocol used was asfollows:

E. coli strains carrying each of M. genitalium cassette number 66 to 69(contained in pENTR223), each of M. genitalium cassette number 78 to 85(contained in pBR322), C1-24, C25-49, C50-77, C78-101 (each contained inpCC1BAC), or pRS415 were propagated in LB medium containing theappropriate antibiotic and incubated at 30° C. or 37° C. for 16 hours.The cultures were harvested and the DNA molecules were purified usingQiagen's HiSpeed Plasmid Maxi Kit according to the instructionsprovided, with the exception of C-assemblies, which were notcolumn-purified. Instead, following neutralization of the lysed cells,C-assemblies were centrifuged then precipitated with isopropanol. DNApellets were dissolved in Tris/EDTA (TE) buffer then RNAse treated,phenol-chloroform extracted, and ethanol precipitated. DNA pellets weredissolved in TE buffer. Cassettes 66 through 69 and 78 through 85 wereexcised from the vectors by restriction digestion with either FauI orBsmBI, and C-assemblies were excised by digestion with NotI. To generatethe 4024 bp and 2901 bp overlapping fragments of pRS415, DNA wasdigested with PvuII and Scal, or PsiI, respectively. Restrictiondigestions were terminated by phenol-chloroform extraction and ethanolprecipitation. DNA was dissolved in TE buffer pH 8.0 then quantified bygel electrophoresis with standards. Fragments F1 to F8 were generated byPCR using the PHUSION® Hot Start High-Fidelity DNA polymerase with HFBuffer (NEB) according to the instructions provided. PCR products wereextracted from agarose gels following electrophoresis and purified usingthe QIAQUICK® Gel Extraction Kit (Qiagen) according to the instructionsprovided, except DNA was eluted from the columns with TE buffer pH 8.0.

Fragments F1 to F4 were amplified from Clostridium cellulolyticumgenomic DNA using primers F1-For(GCAGCTTCAAGTCCTGCAAACAAGGTGTACCAGGATCGTT) (SEQ ID NO: 1) and F1-Rev(GATTTCAGTGTAGTTAGGGCCAGTTGAATTCAAACCTGCC) (SEQ ID NO: 2); F2-For(GGCAGGTTTGAATTCAACTGGCCCTAACTACACTGAAATC) (SEQ ID NO: 3) and F2-Rev(CTTGGTGCCATCAGCATTGTTCTCTGTACCGCCCACTGTC) (SEQ ID NO: 4; F3-For(GACAGTGGGCGGTACAGAGAACAATGCTGATGGCACCAAG) (SEQ ID NO: 5) and F3-Rev(CAGTTGAATAATCATGTGTTCCTGCGGCAAATGCAGTACC) (SEQ ID NO: 6); and F4-For(GGTACTGCATTTGCCGCAGGAACACATGATTATTCAACTG) (SEQ ID NO: 7) and F4-Rev(TTATTTACCAAGAACCTTTGCCTTTAACATTGCAAAGTCA) (SEQ ID NO: 8), respectively.

F5 and F7 were amplified from Mycoplasma gallisepticum genomic DNA usingprimers F5-For (GCTTGCATGCATCCTGTTTATTCATCACAAACATTGAAC) (SEQ ID NO: 9)and F5-Rev (AATTCTGCAGTTTTTATTTCCTAACAGAACATTTTTTCTAGTATAGC) (SEQ ID NO:10); and F7-For (CGACTCTAGATAAATAGCCTTTCTTTATCTTTTTGAGGC) (SEQ ID NO:11) and F7-Rev (CCGGGGATCCCTTTCTCAATTGTCTGCTCCATATATGTT) (SEQ ID NO:12), respectively.

F6 and F8 were amplified from pRST21 using primers F6-For(TAGAAAAAATGTTCTGTTAGGAAATAAAAACTGCAGAATTAAAAGTTAGTGAACAA GAAAAC) (SEQID NO: 13) and F6-Rev(AGCCTCAAAAAGATAAAGAAAGGCTATTTATCTAGAGTCGACCTGCAGTTCAGATC) (SEQ ID NO:14); and F8-For(TGTTCAATGTTTGTGATGAATAAACAGGATGCATGCAAGCTTTTGTTCCCTTTAG) (SEQ ID NO:15) and F8-Rev (AAACATATATGGAGCAGACAATTGAGAAAGGGATCCCCGGGTACCGAGCTC)(SEQ ID NO: 16), respectively.

Rolling circle amplification (RCA) of assembled products. RCA wascarried out as previously described. One μl of the repaired orunrepaired reaction was mixed with 1 μl of 100 mM NaOH and incubated atroom temperature for 5 minutes to denature the double-stranded DNA. Oneμl of this alkaline-treated mixture was then added to 19 μl of RCAcomponents in a 0.2 ml PCR tube. The final reaction concentrations forRCA are as follows: 37 mM Tris-HCl pH 7.5, 50 mM KCl, 10 mM MgCl₂, 5 mM(NH₄)₂SO₄, 100 μg/ml BSA, 1 mM DTT, 3.25 mM random hexamers (FidelitySystem MD), 1 Um′ yeast pyrophosphatase (United States Biochemical), and250 Um′ phi29 DNA polymerase (NEB). The reaction was incubated at 30° C.for 20 hours, and then terminated by incubation at 65° C. for 10minutes.

Cloning the DNA assembly products. To clone assembled products,reactions were carried out in the presence of PCR-amplified BACscontaining 40 bp of overlapping sequence to the ends of the assembledproduct. NotI restriction sites were also included to allow release ofthe vector. In general, pCC1BAC™ was used. However, for cloningMgen25-77, a version of pCC1BAC™, named KanBAC, was constructed thatcontains the kanamycin resistance gene in place of the chloramphenicolresistance gene. Samples (up to 1 μl) of the assembly reactions weretransformed into 30 μl TRANSFORMAX™ EPI300™ (Epicentre) electrocompetentE. coli cells in a 1 mm cuvette (BioRad) at 1200 V, 25 μF, and 200 Ousing a Gene Pulser XCELL™ Electroporation System (BioRad). Cells wereallowed to recover at 30° C. or 37° C. for 2 hours in 1 ml SOC mediumthen plated onto LB medium+12.5 μg/ml chloramphenicol or LB medium+25μg/ml kanamycin. Following incubation at 30° C. or 37° C. for 24 to 48hours, individual colonies were selected and grown in 3 ml LBmedium+12.5 μg/ml chloramphenicol or 25 μg/ml kanamycin overnight at 30°C. or 37° C. DNA was prepared from these cells by alkaline-lysis usingthe P1, P2, and P3 buffers supplied by Qiagen then isopropanolprecipitation. DNA pellets were dissolved in TE buffer pH 8.0 containingRNAse then digested with NotI to release the insert from the BAC.

Agarose gel analyses of assembled DNA molecules and cloned products. U-5FIGE analysis was performed on 0.8% E-gels (Invitrogen, catalog #G5018-08) and the parameters are forward 72 V, initial switch 0.1 sec,final switch 0.6 sec, with linear ramp and reverse 48 V, initial switch0.1 sec, final switch 0.6 sec, with linear ramp. U-2 FIGE analysis wasperformed on 1% Agarose gels (BioRad, catalog #161-3016) in 1×TAE bufferwith 0.5 μg/ml ethidium bromide without circulation and the parametersare forward 90 V, initial switch 5.0 sec, final switch 30 sec, withlinear ramp, and reverse 60 V, initial switch 5.0 sec, final switch 30sec, with lineal-ramp. DNA bands were visualized with a BioRad Gel Docor an Amersham Typhoon 9410 Fluorescence Imager.

Example V Comparison of the Three DNA Assembly Methods

This Example compares the efficacy of the three different in vitroassembly methods as shown in FIG. 1A (two-step thermocycled assemblywith T4 pol), FIG. 4A (one-step thermocycled assembly with ExoIII), andFIG. 5A (one-step isothermal assembly with T5 exo).

Efficiency of Assembly of a 31 kb Fragment

In step (a), shown in FIG. 6A, cassettes 66 to 69 (5.9 kb to 6.2 kb with80 bp overlaps) were assembled into BAC66-69 (˜8 kb with 40 bpoverlaps), as shown in FIG. 1A, without repair (CBA), with completerepair (CBA+TRB), or with gap fill-in repair with T4 pol but withoutligation (T4 pol fill-in), and as shown in FIG. 4A (ExoIII) and FIG. 5A(T5 exo). Equal amounts were analyzed by U-5 FIGE then transformed intoE. coli.

Then, in step (b), as shown in FIG. 6B, a 0.1 μl sample of the assemblyreactions of step (a) yielded the number of transformants noted. Foreach assembly method, DNA was extracted from 10 transformants anddigested with NotI for determination of correct insert size (˜23 kb,denoted by *).

Efficiency of Assembly of a 310 kb Fragment

In step (c), shown in FIG. 6C, two one-quarter M. genitalium genomesC25-49 and C50-77 were assembled into BAC25-77 (˜8 kb with 40 bpoverlaps) using the methods described in (a). A fraction of each wasanalyzed by U-2 FIGE. In step (d), as shown in FIG. 6D, equal amountswere transformed into E. coli, and a 1 μl sample of the assemblyreactions in (c) yielded the number of transformants noted. Notransformants were obtained for the CBA and T4 pol fill-in reactions soanalysis ended at that step. DNA was prepared from 7 to 10 transformantsof each assembly method, then digested with NotI for determination ofcorrect insert size (˜310 kb, denoted by t).

Cloning of assembled DNA molecules is a common application of thesemethods. Thus, it is important to determine which assembly method wasbest for cloning. First, the joining efficiencies of synthetic M.genitalium cassettes 66 to 69 (˜6 kb each and with 80 bp overlaps) intoa BAC with 40 bp overlaps to the ends of the assembly were compared.Also included was a comparison with 2 additional DNA assembly systemsthat omit fill-in and ligation steps. Each of these 5 methodsefficiently and similarly assembled cassettes 66 to 69 into BAC66-69 asdetermined by FIGE (FIG. 6A). Equal amounts of these DNA molecules werethen transformed into E. coli. Ten randomly selected clones from eachmethod were analyzed following NotI digestion, which released the vectorfrom the ˜23 kb insert (FIG. 6B). For each method, 90 to 100% of theclones had the correct insert. Omitting both DNA polymerase and ligaseyields only 2% of the number of colonies achieved with complete repair.This emphasizes the importance of a repair step. Leaving the nicksunsealed but filling in the gaps increases the cloning efficiency to 44%of the complete reaction, suggesting that gaps can significantlyinfluence cloning efficiencies in E. coli.

In prior work during the construction of the synthetic M. genitaliumgenome, the DNA assembly strategy shown in FIG. 1A to clone ½ genomesfrom ¼ molecules in E. coli could not be used. The assembly was repeatedwith the novel in vitro methods of the present invention to determine ifany of these assembly methods can be used to clone Mgen25-77 (310 kb)from C25-49 and C50-77. Each method efficiently joined the 310 kb, halfM. genitalium genome (FIG. 6C). As expected, this DNA molecule could notbe cloned in E. coli using the strategy outlined in FIG. 1A. Filling inthe gaps with T4 pol, but leaving the nicks unsealed, does not producetransformants. However, the one-step ExoIII- and T5 exo-based systems ofthe present invention were successfully used to clone these large DNAmolecules (FIG. 6D). Thus, there are 2 preferred DNA assembly systems asdescribed in the present invention that can be used to efficiently joinand clone DNA molecules up to several hundred kb in length in E. coli,the approximate upper limit for transformation into this bacterium.

Example VI Assembly of Large DNA Molecules

Invention methods were capable of assembling DNA molecules ofunprecedented sizes. The complete synthetic ˜583 kb M. genitalium genomewas assembled in vitro. It is well known that DNA molecules become morefragile as they get larger. The success in assembling such largemolecules may be attributed to the presence of PEG in these reactions.The viscosity of this reagent may reduce shear forces on these largemolecules in solution. The size limit for in vitro DNA assembly is notknown; however, products as large as 900 kb have been observed for eachof the assembly methods. These methods may provide sufficient amounts ofrecombined product for an intended application. If not, the assembledproduct may be propagated in a host organism. However, assembled DNAmolecules of ˜300 kb have only been cloned in E. coli by the one-stepassembly methods and not by the two-step method. One explanation is thatreducing reaction manipulation reduces DNA damage, and thus more intactclones are obtained. Once better in vitro amplification tools aredeveloped (e.g., RCA), it may no longer be required to replicate theassembled constructs in a host organism. However, currently the largestphi29 products reported are only ˜70 kb.

Although several recombination methods are provided herein, the one-stepisothermal system is preferred due to its simplicity. All components ofthis assembly system can be premixed and kept frozen until needed. Thus,all that is required for DNA assembly is for input DNA to be added tothis mixture, and the mixture to be briefly incubated at 50° C. Thisapproach could be very useful for cloning multiple inserts into a vectorwithout relying on the availability of restriction sites, and forrapidly constructing large DNA molecules. For example, regions of DNAtoo large to be amplified by a single PCR event can be divided intomultiple overlapping PCR amplicons and then assembled into one piece.The isothermal system is advantageous for assembling circular products,which accumulate because they are not substrates for any of the 3enzymes. The one-step-thermocyled method, on the other hand, can be usedto generate linear assemblies since the exonuclease is inactivatedduring the reaction.

Example VII Codon Optimization

The methods of the present invention can be used to optimize codon usagein accordance with the host cell to construct a gene that has theoptimal protein yield. Often, the gene that yields the highest amount ofprotein gives the optimal yield. However, if the gene is toxic to thehost cell that produces the gene, the optimal yield may be lower thanthe highest yield.

Codons of a gene are computationally optimized to produce a singlesequence of the full gene. This single sequence may not be the very bestto produce an optimal yield, but serves as a starting point. Next,oligonucleotides are generated computationally such that the codonchoices at selected positions are varied. As shown in FIG. 7A, theoligonucleotides may encompass more than one codon, but within eacholigonucleotide at least one codon is varied. For instance, threedifferent codons encoding leucine are present in three versions of“Oligo 1”. The oligonucleotides overlap with one another in order toallow for assembly according to the methods described herein.

A sufficient number of oligonucleotides is used to assemble the entiregene. When the oligonucleotides are assembled according to an assemblyreaction, such as any of the above-described assembly reactions, a genelibrary is produced such that each member contains a particularcombination of codon variants. Every member of the library, however,yields the same amino acid sequence. The method thus allows foroptimization of translation of the gene product to provide the samepolypeptide, according to the preferences of the chosen host. Individualclones can be assayed for native protein yield, with the clone producingthe optimal yield selected.

Example VIII Gene Optimization

The methods of the present invention can be used to provide a proteinthat has maximum activity. The protein with maximum activity iscomprised of a consensus sequence from a group of homologous proteinsequences. FIG. 7B depicts five homologous proteins that each containthree motifs and one domain. For instance, protein 1 may be from human,protein 2 from C. elegans, protein 3 from S. cerevisiae, protein 4 frommouse, and protein 5 from D. melanogaster. A consensus protein has motifA from protein 5, motif B from protein 2, domain A from protein 1 andmotif C from protein 3.

Synthetically, one can generate a library of protein variants by puttingtogether different combinations of the motif and domain protein blocksfrom a set of homologous proteins. In the scheme of FIG. 7B, diversityor library complexity is five to the fourth power, or 625 unique clonesthat can be tested for maximum activity. The motif and domain proteinblocks may be synthesized according to any of the methods of theprevious examples. Then, library clones may be screened for maximumprotein activity.

Example IX Pathway Optimization and Assembly of a Combinatorial Library

The methods of the present invention can be used to combine multipleversions of each gene in a pathway, which are randomly assembled toproduce a combinatorial pathway library, as shown in FIG. 1C. Theproducts of all of the in vitro assembly reactions are then cloned intoan appropriate recipient cell, and the cells then assayed for yield ofthe specific product or characteristic of the pathway.

The versions of each gene may homologues from multiple species orsynthetically generated variants according to the previous examples. Thegenes may include upstream promoter elements that vary from one speciesto the next, such that optimum yield can be obtained from pathwaysinvolving transcription factors.

These methods allow the possibility of screening for enormous variantpathways that heretofore would have been impossible to synthesizeindividually. For example, a combinatorial library of 109 variantpathways can be constructed from 90 individual genes (10 variants ofeach of nine genes in the pathway). The genes are synthesizedindividually, but the pathways are combinatorially assembled efficientlyand quickly in vitro. Each gene is flanked by a joining sequence thatprovides an overlap with any variant of the adjacent pathway genes (orwith the vector in the case of the first and last pathway genes). All 90genes are pooled along with the vector and joined by the assemblyreactions of the present invention to produce the combinatorial library.

Example X Assembly of a Combinatorial Library to Optimize an AcetateUtilization Pathway

The methods of the present invention were used to create a combinatoriallibrary of synthetically made orthologs to the acetate kinase ackA geneand the phosphostransacetylase pta gene in E. coli in order to optimizethe acetate utilization (ackA/pta) pathway. The ackA/pta pathway in E.coli enables growth on acetate as a carbon source. Both genes mediatethe interconversion between acetate and acetyl-CoA, as shown in FIG. 8A.Acetate kinase (ackA) converts acetate plus ATP to acetyl-phosphate.Phosphtransacetylase (pta) converts acetyl-phosphate and CoA toacetyl-CoA. E. coli produces substantial amounts of acetate duringexcess glucose fermentation in high density cultures, and acetate is themajor byproduct under aerobic conditions. High acetate concentrationinhibits growth because it decouples transmembrane pH gradients, whichin turn negatively affects internal osmotic pressure, pH, and amino acidsynthesis. In addition, the acid pretreatment of biomass releasessubstantial amounts of acetate (derived from the acetyl side chains ofhemicellulose). The methods described in this Example show the use ofcombinatorial optimization to boost acetate utilization by the hostcells to eliminate excess acetate and enhance growth of the host. Astrain of E. coli was developed that was not inhibited by the presenceof acetate when grown in a glucose-salts minimal medium, and could growvigorously on acetate as the sole carbon source.

Variants of the ackA and pta genes were combinatorially placed underindependent promoter control. The library was constructed from syntheticorthologs to both genes from five different organisms with fourdifferent promoters for each gene, as shown in FIG. 8B. The organismsare Methanosarcina acetivorans, Clostridium phytofermentans, Pelobactercarbinolicus, Ruminococcus ignavus, and E. coli. The four promoters havedifferent strengths, as indicated by VS (very strong; recA), S (strong;A1 T7), M (medium; ssb), and L (low; lacI). All the valiant pieces weremade synthetically by Integrated DNA Technologies (IDT). The complexityof the library (total number of combinatorial constructs) was 400(4×5×4×5).

In order to construct the library, four different DNA fragments wererequired as well as a vector, requiring assembly of five DNA pieces inall. To each of the genes a ribosome binding site (rbs) and terminatorsequences were added, as shown in FIG. 8C. Additionally, a linker (40bp) was used to connect the genes with the promoter pieces. At both endsof the total insert, 40 bp overlapping sequences with the BAC vector(pCC1BAC linearized at EcoRI site, Epicentre) were used to enable thecomplete assembly.

All the synthetic nucleic acid portions (genes and promoters) wereflanked by NotI sites and supplied as inserts in pUC57 plasmids. Inorder to release the pieces from the plasmids, a NotI restriction digeststep was required before the isothermal T5 assembly step. The DNA in theNotI digest reaction consisted of 25 fmol of each of the promoter pieces(total of 8) and 20 fmol of each gene (total of 10). Also, the PCRamplified E. coli genes were added to the reaction (even though theywere not cloned in plasmids) and did not contain NotI site and thereforewere not affected by the digest. The NotI restriction digest reactionwas carried out in 50 μL for one hour at 37° C. and contained thefollowing: 28 μl of DNA, 15.5 μl of H₂O, 0.5 μl of BSA, 5 μl of buffer,and 1 μl of NotI.

Following one hour incubation at 37° C. the DNA was extracted withphenol-chloroform-isoamylalcohol and ethanol precipitated. The pelletwas resuspended in the same initial volume of 28 μL. Then, theisothermal T5 exonuclease assembly reaction was conducted by incubatingthe following reagents at 50° C. for 30 minutes: 28 μl of pooled DNA(100 fmol of each of the 4 pooled pieces), 1.0 μl of pCC1BAC™ (100fmol), 16 μl of 5×ISO buffer, 1.6 μl T5 exonuclease (0.2 U/μl,Epicentre), 8.0 μl of Taq DNA Ligase (40 U/μl, NEB), 1.0 μl of PHUSION®DNA Polymerase (2 U/μl, NEB), and 24.4 μl of H₂O, for a total 80 μlreaction.

The DNA from the reaction was extracted withphenol-chloroform-isoamylalcohol and ethanol precipitated. Potentialassembly products were visualized on 0.8% EtBr E-Gel. Standardprocedures were used to transform E. coli, and strains that were notacetate inhibited and grew well on acetate as the sole carbon sourcewere selected for. A triple E. coli mutant (Δacs ΔackA Δpta; deficientin acetate utilization and therefore does not grow on acetate substrate)was transformed with assembly reaction, whereby 20 μl ofelectro-competent cells were electroporated with 2 μl of the assemblyreaction. The cells were plated on minimal medium agar plates containing50 mM of acetate as a sole carbon source and chloramphenicol forselection, and incubated at 32° C. for 4 days. Resulting colonies werethen analyzed to confirm the presence of the combinatorial assemblyproduct (11,830 bp as compared to the plasmid control of 8,128 bp) asshown in FIG. 8D, and then sequence-verified. The triple mutant, whichcannot grow on acetate was thus successfully transformed with a pACK-PTAcombinatorially assembled construct.

Variants of the combinatorial constructs may then be screened fordesirable properties, such as high production levels and efficientutilization of acetate.

Example XI Assembly of a Complete Mouse Mitochondrial Genome Using theT5 Exonuclease One-Step Isothermal Method

The methods of the present invention were used to assemble the completemouse mitochondrial genome. This example shows the assembly of thisgenome, which has previously been difficult to construct due to its highA+T content of ˜65%. The assembly was performed using an 8×60merassembly method, i.e., eight 60 base oligonucleotides with 20 bpoverlaps per micro titer well to assemble 300 bp per well, in 75 wells.

Briefly, 600 60 base oligonucleotides were synthesized to cover theentire mitochondrial genome, with appropriate 20 bp overlapping regions.75 reactions of 8 oligonucleotides each were pooled at a peroligonucleotide concentration of 180 nM. The oligonucleotide pools werethen diluted 1:4 with the assembly system components, and assembled withthe T5 isothermal assembly method of the present invention for 1 hour at50° C. in pUC19 vectors. NotI restriction sites, which flank each insertare produced following assembly since they are added to the terminaloligonucleotides in each set of 8 (e.g., oligo 1 and oligo 8), thusallowing the insert to be released from the vector prior to the nextround of assembly. The 75 assembly reactions were then transformed intoE. coli via electroporation for further analysis. All assemblies weresequence-verified. Products were amplified with PHUSION® polymerase tosaturation (30 cycles, all 75 pieces between 35-45 ng/μl). 5 reactionswere pooled and digested with NotI to remove non-complementarysequences.

NotI digested reaction products of wells were then sequentiallycombined, first to form 1,180 bp fragments (five 300 bp fragments in 15reactions). Pools of 5 reactions from the prior step were assembled asabove in pBR322 vectors. AscI restriction sites, which flank each insertare produced following assembly since they were designed into theoligonucleotides that produce the terminal cassettes in each set of 5(e.g., cassette 1 and cassette 5), thus allowing the insert to bereleased from the vector prior to the next round of assembly. (see FIG.9A); and then amplified with PHUSION® polymerase to saturation (30cycles, all 15 pieces between 45-70 ng/μl (see FIG. 9B). 5 reactionswere pooled and digested with AscI to remove non-complementarysequences.

AscI digested reaction products were then combined to form 5,560 bpfragments (five 1,180 bp fragments in 3 reactions). Pools of 5 reactionsfrom the prior step were assembled as above in pSmart-BAC vectors. SbfIrestriction sites, which flank each insert are produced followingassembly since they were designed into the oligonucleotides that producethe terminal cassettes in each set of 3 (e.g., cassette 1 and cassette25), thus allowing the insert to be released from the vector prior tothe next round of assembly. (see FIG. 9C); and then amplified withPHUSION® polymerase for 20-25 cycles (see FIG. 9D). 3 reactions werepooled and digested with SbfI to remove non-complementary sequences.

Final assembly of the whole mitochondrial genome of 16,520 bp was inpCC1BAC™ (FIG. 9E—three 5,560 bp fragments in 1 reaction) representingNC_005089 M. musculus mitochondrial genome (16,299 bp). The assembledgenome was designed to contain an additional 221 bases (bases 1-221 areduplicated at the end of the sequence, see below) so the assemblyproduct is therefore 16,520 bp and not 16,299 bp. Full-length sequenceclones were then sequence-verified.

In order to produce a mitochondrial genome that was free from any vectorsequence (i.e., exactly as found in nature) bases 1-221 were duplicatedat the end of the 16,299 bp sequence (i.e., at bases 16,300 bp to 16,520bp) to produce an assembled product size of 16,520 bp. Digestion withPmlI (designed into the oligonucleotides that produced cassettes 1 and75) releases the vector sequence. This creates an overlap between theends of the mitochondrial genome, which can then be joined by the T5exonuclease isothermal assembly method (or the other assembly methods)as shown in FIG. 9F.

From the foregoing description, one skilled in the art can easilyascertain the essential characteristics of this invention, and withoutdeparting from the spirit and scope thereof, can make changes andmodifications of the invention to adapt it to various usage andconditions and to utilize the present invention to its fullest extent.The preceding specific embodiments are to be construed as merelyillustrative, and not limiting of the scope of the invention in any waywhatsoever. The entire disclosure of all applications, patents,publications (including reference manuals) cited above and in thefigures, are hereby incorporated in their entirety by reference.

What is claimed is:
 1. An in vitro method of joining a set of two ormore double-stranded (ds) or single-stranded (ss) DNA molecules, whereinadjacent DNA molecules to be joined contain overlapping sequences attheir termini, said method comprising: contacting in vitro the two ormore DNA molecules in a single vessel with a mixture of componentscomprising; (a) an isolated non-thermostable 5′ to 3′exonuclease thatlacks 3′ exonuclease activity, (b) a crowding agent selected from thegroup consisting of: polyethylene glycol and dextran; (c) an isolatedthermostable DNA polymerase, (d) an isolated thermostable ligase, (e) amixture of dNTPs, and (f) a suitable buffer, under isothermal conditionsand in amounts effective for joining the two or more DNA molecules toform a first assembled dsDNA molecule in a concerted reaction in saidsingle vessel.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the exonuclease of (a)is a T5 exonuclease.
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the crowdingagent of (b) is PEG, and/or the ligase of (d) is Taq ligase.
 4. Themethod of claim 3 wherein the crowding agent of (b) is PEG and theligase of (d) is Taq ligase.
 5. The method of claim 3, wherein theexonuclease of (a) is a T5 exonuclease.
 6. The method of claim 4,wherein the exonuclease of (a) is a T5 exonuclease.
 7. The method ofclaim 1, wherein the conditions are also suitable for digesting anyunpaired, non-homologous, single stranded DNAs following the joiningreaction.
 8. The method of claim 7, wherein at least some of the DNAmolecules to be joined comprise, at one terminus, a sequence that isnon-homologous to any of the DNA molecules of interest.
 9. The method ofclaim 8, wherein the non-homologous sequences comprise one or morebinding regions for PCR primers, and/or regions of homology to vectorsequences, and/or recognition sites for one or more restriction enzymes.10. The method of claim 1, further comprising repeating the method tojoin a second set of two or more DNA molecules to one another to obtaina second assembled DNA molecule, and then joining the first and thesecond assembled DNA molecules to obtain a third assembled dsDNAmolecule.